NEW ZEALAND
OILED MARINE MAMMAL PROTOCOL
Photo: Kerri Morgan
New Zealand Wildlife Health Centre
Massey University, New Zealand
January 2011
Table of Contents
1.
General Introduction ................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Relevant Legislation .................................................................................................. 6
1.2 Additional OWR documents of relevance .................................................................. 6
2.
Fur seals ....................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Responder Health & Safety ....................................................................................... 7
2.3 Response Options ..................................................................................................... 9
2.4 Response options feasibility analysis ...................................................................... 10
2.5 Response Considerations ....................................................................................... 10
2.6 Treatment procedure ............................................................................................... 13
3.
New Zealand sea lion ................................................................................................ 16
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 16
3.2 Responder Health & Safety ..................................................................................... 16
3.3 Response Options ................................................................................................... 17
3.4 Response options feasibility analysis ...................................................................... 18
3.5 Response Considerations ....................................................................................... 18
3.6 Treatment Procedure .............................................................................................. 21
4.
True seals ................................................................................................................... 24
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 24
4.2 Responder Health & Safety ..................................................................................... 24
5.
International Experience with Oiled Pinnipeds ....................................................... 25
5.1 Sanko Harvest Oil Spill, Australia 1991 ................................................................... 25
5.2 San Jorge Oil Spill, Uruguay 1997 .......................................................................... 25
5.3 The Marine Mammal Centre, Sausalito, CA ............................................................ 25
5.4 SeaWorld San Diego, CA ........................................................................................ 26
5.5 Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Centre, DFG, Santa Cruz, CA ........ 26
5.6 Comparisons between OWR operations in California facilities ................................ 27
6.
References ................................................................................................................. 28
Appendices ....................................................................................................................... 30
1. Marine Mammal Zoonoses & Zooanthroponoses ...................................................... 31
2. Equipment for pinniped OWR .................................................................................... 49
3. Key National Contacts ............................................................................................... 50
4. Euthanasia of pinnipeds during OWR........................................................................ 51
5. Pinniped necropsy protocol ....................................................................................... 53
6. Post release monitoring techniques .......................................................................... 62
7. Capture techniques for pinnipeds during OWR ......................................................... 64
8. Transport of pinnipeds during OWR .......................................................................... 66
9. Housing of pinnipeds in captivity during OWR ........................................................... 68
10. Pinniped husbandry in captive facilities ................................................................... 72
11. Nutrition of captive pinnipeds .................................................................................. 73
12. Pinniped handling techniques for young animals .................................................... 76
13. Individual identification for pinnipeds during OWR .................................................. 79
14. Intake examination, triage and veterinary stabilisation of oiled pinnipeds ............... 81
15. Pinniped admission and summary record ................................................................ 83
16. Pinniped anaesthesia during OWR ......................................................................... 85
17. Washroom facility requirements .............................................................................. 88
18. Key International Contacts ...................................................................................... 89
2
Acknowledgements
Thank you to Dr Simon Childerhouse, Australian Antarctic Division and to Dr Laura Boren and
colleagues from the New Zealand Department of Conservation for their comments on the draft
protocol.
Thanks must also go to the following people for insight on this topic during the preparation of this
protocol:
• Dr Mike Ziccardi, Oiled Wildlife Care Network, University of California, Davis, California
• Dr Pam Yochem, Hubbs SeaWorld Research Institute, San Diego, California
• Dr Brent Stewart, Hubbs SeaWorld Research Institute, San Diego, California
• Dr Dave Jessup, Department of Fish & Game, California
• Mr Mark Bressler, SeaWorld San Diego, San Diego, California
• Dr Frances Gulland and staff at the Marine Mammal Centre, Fort Cronkhite, California
Correspondence
All correspondence regarding this protocol should be addressed to:
The Oiled Wildlife Response Project Administrator
New Zealand Wildlife Health Centre
Massey University
Private Bag 11 222
Palmerston North 4442
New Zealand
Email:
[email address]
3
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Introduction
1.
General Introduction
Over fifty different species of marine mammal have been recorded in New Zealand waters. The
majority of these records are of cetaceans (whale and dolphins), with the remainder being pinnipeds
(seals). All marine mammals are fully protected in New Zealand under the Marine Mammals
Protection Act 1978. Baker et al. 2010 recently appraised the conservation status of all of New
Zealand’s marine mammal species according to the 2008 DOC Threat Classification Scheme
(Townsend et al. 2008). Those with listings of Nationally Critical or Nationally Endangered are listed
below:
‘Nationally Critical’
‘Nationally endangered’
• Bryde’s whales
• Hector’s dolphin
• Maui’s dolphins
• southern right whales
• Southern Elephant seals
• bottlenose dolphins
• Orca
• New Zealand sea lions
During an oil spill in which multiple marine mammal species are affected, there is sound justification
for these species to be afforded priority treatment over species with a lower conservation status.
Both cetaceans and pinnipeds are at risk of contamination during an oil spill; however oiled
cetaceans are less of a concern as the thickness of the epidermis in these animals is thought to limit
oil penetration in affected individuals (O’Hara & O’Shea 2001). As a result, cetaceans are not dealt
with further in this guide which focuses on pinnipeds. In contrast to cetaceans, the pelage (fur) of
pinnipeds is more readily affected by oil contamination. Contaminated pelage rapidly loses its
insulation and waterproofing qualities, which is life threatening in many circumstances. For this
reason the response protocol outlined below focuses on pinnipeds. The effects of oil on pinniped
species wil be largely external as most seal species do not have a significant oral component of their
grooming behaviour, which reduces (but doesn’t eliminate) internal toxic effects (Gales 1991). It is
also possible that marine mammals may ingest or inhale oil, but there is little that can be done to
eliminate or reduce this other than progressing cleanup operations as quickly and efficiently as
possible.
For this protocol to be effective it is necessary for those using it to be able to quickly and accurately
distinguish between pinniped species that may be encountered in New Zealand waters. The
fol owing species are seen around the mainland New Zealand coast:
Category
Species
Status
• Fur seals:
o New Zealand fur seals
o
Resident/Breeding
o Sub-Antarctic fur seals
o
Occasional visitor
• Sea lions:
o New Zealand sea lions
o
Resident/Breeding
(formerly called Hooker’s sea lions)
(Otago/Southland)
• True seals:
o Leopard seals
o
Frequent visitor
o Elephant seals
o
Occasional visitor
4
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Introduction
In addition, the following species are generally restricted to New Zealand subantarctic and Antarctic
waters:
Category
Species
• Fur seals:
o Antarctic fur seal
• True seals:
o Crabeater seals
o Ross seals
o Weddell seals
The recommended publication to aid with species field identification is: A photographic guide to
mammals of New Zealand, Carolyn M. King. 2008. New Holland Publishers. ISBN-13:
9781869662028.
Alternatively a useful online factsheet with species identification information can be downloaded at:
http://www.doc.govt.nz/upload/documents/about-doc/concessions-and-permits/conservation-
revealed/seals-lowres.pdf
For the purpose of this document the species above are divided into three categories: Fur seals, sea
lions and true seals. These categories are based on comparative physiology and will be used
hereafter to reflect the differences in oiled wildlife response (OWR) protocols and treatment criteria.
Effective contingency planning will rely on pre-spill knowledge of pinniped distribution. Regional Oil
Spill Contingency Plans should contain information on local pinniped distribution, and further advice
on this topic can be sought from the Regional Wildlife Advisor and/or Department of Conservation at
the time of a spill.
Please note that these protocol have been developed primarily for a ‘mainland’ response, where
‘mainland’ describes the North Island, South Island, Stewart Island or Chatham Islands.
It is recognised that New Zealand’s subantarctic islands may also be impacted by oil spills and that
pinnipeds are likely casualties during such events. However, due to the remoteness and associated
logistical constraints of a subantarctic response, we anticipate that these guidelines will provide a
useful reference, but will need to be viewed in context of the MNZ oil spill plan for subantarctic
response.
5
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Introduction
1.1. Relevant Legislation:
Any oiled wildlife response intentions should be formulated with input from local Department of
Conservation representatives at the time of a marine oil spill. The relevant sections of the Marine
Mammal Protection Act 1978 are provided below – please familiarise yourself with these sections
before responding to oiled marine mammals:
MMPA 1978, Section 18: Treatment or disposal of sick or dead marine mammals
(1) Nothing in this Act shall affect—
a. Any person who gives any humane assistance, care, or medication to any stranded, sick, or
injured marine mammal if (where known) details of the mammal's species, length, sex, and
condition, or a general description of the mammal, and details of the treatment and any
results of the treatment are forwarded to the Director-General or an officer* as soon as
practicable:
[i.e., no permit is required, and there are no grounds for prosecution]
b. The moving of any marine mammal by or under the direction of any officer* in the interests
of public safety or the well-being of the mammal:
c. The destruction of any aged, sick, distressed, or troublesome marine mammal by or under
the direction of an officer* or person authorised by the Minister.
(2) Dead marine mammals shall be disposed of in accordance with the advice of an officer* or
person authorised by the Minister, which advice shall be given, where practicable, after consultation
with the occupier of the place where the marine mammal is found.
* An ‘officer’ is defined as a DOC staff member who has been warranted under the Marine
Mammal Protection Act (i.e. not just any DOC employee), a fisheries officer or a police constable
MMPA 1978, Section 23: Offences and penalties
(2) Every person commits an offence against this Act who—
a. Except under the authority of any enactment, places or leaves any structure or trap or
chemical or other substance in any place where a marine mammal is or is likely to be and
which injures or harms, or is likely to injure or harm, any marine mammal:
b. Uses any vehicle, vessel, aircraft, or hovercraft to herd or harass any marine mammal.
A full copy of the legislation can be accessed via the following link:
http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1978/0080/latest/whole.html?search=ts_act_Marine+ma
mmals+protection+act+1978_resel#DLM25332
1.2. Additional OWR documents of relevance:
This oiled marine mammal protocol is intended to be used in concert with the “Oiled
Wildlife Response Standard Operating Procedure” in which general oil spill response
protocol are outlined for all wildlife.
6
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
2.
Fur Seals
2.1. Introduction:
All fur seals rely on their dense pelage for insulation. Their pelage functions in much the same way as
feathers do on sea birds with regards to insulation – by trapping a layer of warm air next to the skin.
Under normal circumstances the pelage and layer of warm air is impervious to water, however when
oiled, the waterproofing properties of the pelage and the associated insulation properties are
severely compromised leaving affected individuals susceptible to hypothermia, water-logging and
reduced foraging success. It is for these reasons that this pinniped species is the most ‘at risk’ with
regards to oil contamination.
No information is available on how long following oil contamination and cleaning it takes adult fur
seals to regain their waterproofing, but adult sea otters with similar fur structure take 7 – 10 days to
regain waterproofing (D. Jessup, pers. comm.), it is reasonable to assume that this would be similar
for fur seals.
The treatment protocols and criteria outlined in this section apply to all fur seal species.
New Zealand fur seals (
Arctocephalus forsteri):
NZ fur seals are the most abundant species of seal in New Zealand waters. Their populations are
general y increasing and they have a near ubiquitous distribution around mainland New Zealand.
Therefore this species is the most vulnerable to a mainland oiling event. Young NZ fur seal pups are
at greatest risk of oiling as their distribution is nearly exclusively coastal for their first year during
which they remain close to their natal/birth site (Gales 1991).
Subantarctic fur seals (
Arctocephalus tropicalis):
The subantarctic fur seal is an infrequent visitor to mainland NZ. Subantarctic fur seals do not breed
on the mainland or on any of New Zealand’s subantarctic islands. This species is typically more
aggressive on land than New Zealand fur seals (Pete McClelland pers. comm.). Responders should be
made aware of this behavioural difference.
Antarctic fur seals (
Arctocephalus gazel a):
Antarctic fur seals are seldom seen around mainland New Zealand, but do occasionally visit the New
Zealand subantarctic islands. Little is known about their winter distribution; it is possible that they
forage in New Zealand’s Antarctic territory during this time.
2.2. Responder Health & Safety:
Fur seals are unpredictable animals on land and take fright quickly when approached by humans.
When threatened fur seals are quick to bite and can cause serious puncture and crush injuries which
may be accompanied by severe, persistent
mycobacterial infections. A full description of the
7
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
zoonotic diseases carried by marine mammals is given in Mackereth 2005 (included with the authors
permission as Appendix 1), along with recommended precautions for responders. Risk analysis for
marine mammal handlers etc is outlined in Hunt at al. 2008. Additional relevant information is
presented in Mackereth et al. 2005 that reports on the prevalence of
brucel a and
leptospirosis in NZ
fur seal pups.
Fur seal operations during OWR should be supervised by an experienced handler and
appropriate personal protection equipment (PPE – see Appendix 2) should be worn by all
personnel involved with fur seals at all times
8
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
2.3. Response Options
Extreme care must be taken when entering a fur seal colony as adults commonly stampede
for the ocean and may become injured or trample younger animals in the process.
Primary Response Options:
PREVENTION
The primary response option for al pinnipeds is prompt habitat clean-up. Shore-line clean-
up activities that minimise disruption to fur seal colonies and haul-out locations (following
Mearns et al. 1999) should be given preference over more disruptive techniques.
Pre-emptive capture and holding of fur seal pups may be suitable if predictions indicate that
they can be released into clean habitat promptly (within the following timeframes as
dictated by mean foraging trip duration of adult females: 4 days in summer; 8 days in
Autumn and 12 days in winter. Harcourt et al 2002). Contact Dr. Laura Boren, DOC for
further advice, see Appendix 3.
Pre-emptive capture and translocation of adult fur seals may be suitable if predictions
indicate that their habitat can be cleaned before their inevitable return.
Secondary Response Options:
TREATMENT
A.
Minimum intervention option: Monitor impact, remove dead oiled seals, euthanase heavily
oiled live seals (and their dependant pups*).
B.
Moderate intervention option: Monitor impact, remove dead oiled seals, capture and
conduct short-term treatment of live oiled fur seal pups in-situ before release.
C.
Ful intervention option: Monitor impact, remove dead oiled seals, capture and rehabilitate
live oiled adults and pups ex-situ, release rehabilitated seals to the wild following habitat
clean up operations.
Factors which may influence the appropriate level of intervention include:
• Cost/benefit analysis for individual animal
• Number and age-class of animals oiled & extent of oiling
• Weather, especially ambient temperature
• Seasonal life histories - breeding/lactating/moulting
• Whether or not other more threatened pinniped species are also oiled
• Advice provided from DOC
• Availability of suitable temporary rehabilitation facilities
• Availability of essential equipment and appropriate seal handling expertise
• Body condition of individual animals
• Predicted duration of shoreline cleanup and potential for recontamination
*
For the purpose of these protocol ‘pups’ are defined as animals stil dependent on nutritional provisioning
from their mothers; which is the case until they are weaned at 10 months of age (Reidman 1990).
9
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
2.4
Response option feasibility analysis
Pups
Juveniles
Adult
Adult
Mother/pup
females
males
pairs
Response
option A
Medium
High
High
High
High
(Monitor etc)
Response
option B
High
Not Feasible
Not Feasible
Not Feasible
Not Feasible
(In-situ rehab)
Response
option C
Low*
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
(Ex-situ rehab)
* This would entail hand-raising the pup and providing foraging training prior to release to wild.
2.5 Response Considerations
Al Age-Classes:
• New Zealand fur seals have a non-threatened conservation status.
• The Department of Conservation has a policy of minimum intervention for NZ fur seals,
however euthanasia is generally considered acceptable when animal welfare is at risk due to
illness and/or injury.
• All age-classes will be candidates for euthanasia if an individual’s survival is unlikely and/or
undue suffering is occurring.
• Euthanasia decisions should be made by the attending veterinarian in consultation with
DOC. Acceptable euthanasia techniques are outlined in Appendix 3.
• Al contaminated carcasses should be removed as hazardous waste, and disposed of in
consultation with DOC.
• Where possible necropsy of all dead seals should occur. Necropsy remains should be treated
as per above. Necropsy protocol are outlined in Appendix 5.
• Moulting occurs between February and March for NZ fur seals (Mattlin et al. 1998).
• Post-release monitoring is recommended for all rehabilitated pinnipeds (see Appendix 6).
• Capture techniques are outlined in Appendix 7.
• Transport considerations are outlined in Appendix 8.
• Identifying oiled animals may be a challenge due to the naturally dark and glossy pelage of
fur seals. See OWCN 2004 for techniques in assaying pelage swab samples in the field to
ascertain oil exposure.
• Response planning should be undertaken in consultation with Laura Boren, NZ fur seal
biologist where possible (Appendix 3).
10
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
Adult & Juvenile fur seals:
• The ‘ex-situ’ treatment and rehabilitation of adult and juvenile fur seals (response option C)
is feasible with consideration of the fol owing points:
• Individuals would require holding in captivity for 7 – 10 days following washing in order to
regain waterproofing.
• Specific housing and husbandry requirements for captive pinnipeds would need to be met.
These are outlined in Appendices 9 & 10 respectively.
• Supplementary feeding wild adult and juvenile fur seals in captivity may be chal enging,
however overseas examples indicate that it is indeed possible. Information on nutrition in
captivity is provided in Appendix 11.
Fur seal pups:
• The treatment and rehabilitation of oiled fur seal pups is feasible under both ‘in-situ’ and
‘ex-situ’ (response options B and C) with consideration to the fol owing points:
• Al attempts to maintain the mother/pup bond should be made when considering response
options. If it is confirmed that the mother of a dependent pup is dead, then the pup should
be euthanized.
• Nutritional requirements for fur seal pups are discussed in Appendix 11.
• Advice regarding handling young pinnipeds is given in Appendix 12.
• NZ fur seal pups start spending significant portions of their days in rock pools and shallow
coastal waters from 2 months of age onwards (L. Boren pers. comm.). At all ages, pups are
reliant on a healthy pelage for insulation.
• NZ fur seal pups are born November – January (December represents the peak of pupping)
(Bradshaw et al. 1999).
• NZ fur seal pups are weaned at 10 – 11 months of age (Reidman 1990).
• Even without oiling, NZ fur seal pup mortality is influenced by ambient temperature. Hence
ambient temperature will be an important factor affecting mortality during a spill, with cold
temperatures correlating with high pup mortality (Gales 1991).
• A case study of the ‘in-situ’ treatment of oiled NZ fur seal pups is provided in:
Gales 1991. New Zealand fur seals and oil: An overview of assessment, treatment, toxic
effects and survivorship. The 1991 Sanko Harvest Oil Spil . Report to the West Australian
Department of Conservation and Land Management, August 1991. (a copy of this report is
held in the NZWHC, OWR library and can be requested by email: [email address])
Specific considerations for in-situ treatment of fur seal pups:
• Advice should be sought from Laura Boren, DOC on this option (Appendix 3).
• Temporary holding pens may need to be erected until the habitat is cleaned, it may be
beneficial to construct these pens at a distance from the colony to reduce adult females
being attracted by the audible cal s of their pups (see Appendix 9)
11
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
• The time that pups are held must be minimised to ensure that they are returned to their
mothers for feeding as soon as possible.
• If habitat clean-up can be achieved in less than four days then supplementary feeding of
pups may not be necessary, provided fluid therapy is given.
• Overcrowding in pens must be avoided as it can lead to asphyxiation and crushing injuries.
• Once released, monitoring should be conducted to identify pups that are orphaned; obvious
orphans are likely candidates for immediate euthanasia. Note that temporary
abandonments of up to 10 days, fol owed by successful reunions, have been documented for
NZ sea lions (Simon Childerhouse pers. comm.)
• Monitoring should also focus on identifying pups at risk of becoming re-contaminated
through contact with oiled mothers. In these circumstances the following guidance may
assist decision making:
If the mother is heavily oiled ex-situ treatment of mother and pup should be
considered. If this is not possible, euthanasia of mother and pup may be required.
If the mother is lightly oiled and her chances of survival are moderate to high the
following three options may warrant consideration: 1. no further intervention, 2.
recapture pup following periods of maternal attendance (i.e. after the mother has
fed the pup and then returned to sea) to de-contaminate as necessary or, 3.
euthanase pup to decrease energy demands on the mother and increase her chance
of survival
12
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
2.6. Treatment procedure:
A list of equipment which may be necessary to facilitate treatment is provided as Appendix 2.
If capture and cleaning is to occur, these must occur promptly to reduce the likelihood of organ
toxicity and injury.
Intake:
As each oiled pinniped is captured it will proceed as follows:
Step 1:
Initiation of an individual medical record
Step 2:
Individual identification applied if necessary (see Appendix 13)
Step 3:
Clinical assessment, triage and medical stabilisation actions (see Appendix 14)
Step 4:
Enter dry holding enclosure to regain strength prior to cleaning
Pre-wash criteria:
On intake, oiled pinnipeds should be fully assessed by the attending veterinarian in accordance with
Appendix 14 and stabilised before washing. Individual treatment records should also be initiated for
each admitted animal in accordance with Appendix 15. It may take up to 48 hours to address
thermoregulatory issues, hydration and nutrition, such that individuals are strong enough to
undergo washing. Normal core body temperatures for pinnipeds are 36.6 – 39.0°C (OWCN 2004). No
published packed cell volume (PCV) reference range is available for NZ fur seals, but proxy values (%)
from other
Arctocephalus spp are provided below:
Pups
Juveniles
ce*
en
er
Species
ts
k
k
k
yr
Ref
dul
1 w
2 w
3 w
1 mo
2mo
5mo
6mo
7mo
9mo
1yr
1.5
2yr
A
1
Australian
fur seal
9
7
5
5
0
4
38.
- 0.6
- 1.6
- 0.8
- 0.8
- 0.6
- 1.0
+/
34.
+/
46.
+/
45.
+/
49.
+/
51.
+/
2
Juan
Fernandez
0
fur seal
42
- 7.0
36
- 4.0
39
- 5.0
59 – 63
- 5.0
+/
+/
+/
45.
+/
3
Galapagos
fur seal
37
68
83 24
41
(males)
35.88 +/- 4.82
- 2.4
41.
- 3.01
-3.
- 3.29
+/
46.
+/ 48.
+/ 50.
+/
3
Galapagos
fur seal
6
14
1
93
24
53
(females)
35.24 +/- 3.3
43.1
- 3.
-3.
- 2.96
- 1.82
-3.3
+/
47.
+/ 49.29
+/ 48.75
+/ 48.
+/
13
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
* References:
1. Australian fur seal (
A. pusil us doriferus);
Spence-Bailey et al. 2007.
2. Juan Fernandez fur seal (
A. philippii);
Sepulveda 1999
3. Galapagos fur seal (
A. galapagoensis);
Horning & Trillmich 1997
Anaesthesia:
All fur seals, apart from lightly oiled pups (see Gales 1991) wil need to be anaesthetised for washing.
Appropriate anaesthesia techniques are to be determined by the attending veterinarian from
Massey University in consultation with others as necessary. Acceptable anaesthesia techniques are
outlined in Appendix 16.
Wash protocol (adapted from Oiled Wildlife Care Network 2004):
During the wash/rinse process pinnipeds should be monitored very closely for thermoregulatory
distress and wash/rinse water temperature altered appropriately. Hyperthemia is common during
the wash process for pinnipeds, so water temperature may need to be decreased if necessary.
Various pre-treatments may be required to shift weathered oil or tar patches. Commonly used pre-
treatment agents include warmed (35°C) olive oil, canola oil or methyl oleate. Pre-treatments should
be used sparingly and only on stubborn contaminated areas. Pre-treatments are massaged into the
fur and should only be used for the minimum duration required to soften the contamination (no
more than 10 - 15 minutes).
Prepare a 5% detergent solution using thermal neutral (37°C) softened fresh water and your
detergent of choice (e.g. Tergo). Massage the detergent solution into the fur then rinse the pelage
under moderate pressure (200 – 275 Kpa) in softened warm freshwater. Repeat this wash/rinse
cycle until all oil has been lifted from the pelage and there is no oil visible in the rinse water and no
remaining contaminant odour (Davis & Hunter et al 1995).
Perform a final rinse while still sedated. For fur seals this rinse should be extensive (30 – 40
minutes).
Fur seals should then be towel dried before anaesthesia reversal at which time they are placed in a
dry enclosure with a blow dryer on room temperature setting for between 5 and 10 minutes.
Animals should be carefully monitored for dehydration during this period.
Lightly oiled pinnipeds can be ‘spot washed’ using the above techniques only on discrete areas of
pelage as necessary.
Washroom facility requirements are outlined in Appendix 17.
Post-wash conditioning:
Once the wash/dry process is complete, individuals should be held in warm and sturdy dry enclosure
where they are able to be closely monitored until all signs of sedation have passed (minimum 1
hour).
Subsequently, and once stable, individuals should be provided access to pools of softened
freshwater to encourage grooming which is fundamental to the restoration of waterproofing. During
14
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Fur seals
the first few days individuals should be closely monitored to identify and assist animals which
become waterlogged or are suffering from thermoregulatory distress. Warm water pools may be
beneficial for particularly debilitated seals.
PIT tags with embedded temperature sensors may be useful throughout the wash/rehab process for
early detection of thermoregulatory distress and to gauge when an individual has regained
waterproofing (i.e. when subcutaneous temperature stabilises both in and out of pools). Jessup et al
2009 describes this technique during oiled wildlife response on sea otters.
Release:
All decisions on release will be taken in consultation with DOC and appropriate iwi representatives.
The following release criteria should be met:
1. An individual maintains body temperature without assistance
2. No wet/cold spots are detectable on the pelage
3. Normal relaxed grooming behaviour is observed
4. The individual is capable of independent feeding (juveniles and adults) or is expected to be
reunited with its mother for nursing (pups)
5. Good general health (normal blood values, good body condition etc)
6. Clean individuals will only be released into clean habitat.
Where possible individuals will be released as close as practicable to the location from which they
were captured. However if shoreline clean-up operations are prolonged, consideration should be
given to releasing individuals away from their capture site so as long as mother pup pairs are co-
released and predictions indicate that the capture site will be clean before animals return.
Post – Release Monitoring:
Appendix 6 provides information on possible post release monitoring techniques. All post release
monitoring by independent groups, in particular that which relies on tracking equipment to be
attached, will be subject to the issuing of the relevant DOC marine mammal research permits. DOC
can however deploy transmitters etc for management purposes without the need for a permit. It
may be beneficial therefore that DOC lead this work if possible to avoid delays.
Once released, monitoring should be conducted to identify pups that are orphaned. Decisions on
the fate of these pups must be made in conjunction with DOC. Note that temporary abandonments
of up to 10 days, fol owed by successful reunions, have been documented for NZ sea lions (Simon
Childerhouse pers. comm.).
Monitoring should also focus on identifying pups at risk of becoming re-contaminated through
contact with oiled mothers. In these circumstances mothers should be captured and cleaned by one
of the techniques outlined above.
15
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
3.
Sea Lions
3.1 Introduction:
New Zealand sea lions are endemic to New Zealand and are listed by the IUCN as ‘Vulnerable’ based
on both their restricted range and a recently documented population decline. They are also listed as
‘nationally critical’ according to the DOC Threat Classification System (Baker et al. 2010).
No other sea lion species have been recorded in New Zealand waters.
New Zealand sea lions have only recently begun to recolonise their former range around the New
Zealand mainland after becoming locally extinct from the mainland during early human history
(Childerhouse & Gales 1998). Their distribution around the New Zealand mainland is currently
limited to Stewart Island, Otago and Southland, but individuals are seen as far north as Cook Strait
on occasion. The vast majority of sea lions are based in the subantarctic, with more than 99% of all
breeding for this species occurring on the Auckland Islands and Campbel Island (Childerhouse &
gales 1998). An oil spill event in the subantarctic could have a catastrophic effect on this species
depending on location and time of year.
Unlike fur seals, sea lions do not depend on their pelage for insulation, but rather they depend on a
subcutaneous blubber layer for warmth. Neither does their fur have any waterproofing properties.
These reasons mean that sea lions are likely to recover well from oil pollution, but
based on their
conservation status, they should be given high priority when triage decisions are being made
across a range of pinniped species during oiled wildlife response.
Pups less than 3 months old rely on both their pelage and their developing blubber layer for
insulation (Simon Childerhouse pers.comm.); hence pelage health is most important in this age
group, as blubber depth is limited.
3.2. Responder Health & Safety:
Sea lions may bite humans when they feel threatened and can cause serious puncture and crush
injuries which may be accompanied by severe, persistent
mycobacterial infections. A full description
of the zoonotic diseases carried by marine mammals is given in Mackereth 2005 (included with the
authors permission as Appendix 1), along with recommended precautions for responders. Risk
analysis for marine mammal handlers etc is outlined in Hunt at al 2008.
Sea lion operations during OWR should be supervised by an experienced handler and
appropriate personal protection equipment (PPE – see Appendix 2) should be worn by all
personnel involved with sea lions at all times.
16
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
3.3. Response options:
Primary Response Option:
PREVENTION
The primary response option for al pinnipeds is prompt habitat clean-up.
Pre-emptive capture may be a suitable response option for all age classes of sea lions, but
the ease and practicality of this will vary by sex and size. See Appendix 9 for methods of
temporarily restraining sea lions.
Secondary Response Options:
TREATMENT
All contaminated sea lions will be treated for oiling for the following reasons:
• They can be released immediately into clean habitat – no time needed to regain
waterproofing.
• Threatened conservation status
• One of New Zealand’s highest priority marine mammal species
The four recognised response options are:
A.
Minimum intervention option: For individuals suffering only from discrete tar patches in
non-critical locations, an appropriate action may be to simply allow the sea lion to moult the
oiling off and to monitor the situation through time.
B.
Moderate intervention option: Monitor impact, remove dead oiled sea lions, capture and
conduct short-term treatment of live oiled sea lions in-situ.
C.
Full intervention option 1: Monitor impact, remove dead oiled sea lions, capture and treat
oiled sea lions, hold treated sea lions in-situ until habitat is clean and animals can be
released to the wild.
D.
Full intervention option 2: Monitor impact, remove dead oiled sea lions, capture and treat
oiled sea lions and translocate to clean habitat (mother/pup pairs may be good candidates
for translocation – see Gentry 1998).
Triage:
Priority for treatment should be given to individuals according to the following ranking:
1. Pups (especially females)
2. Breeding females
3. Juvenile females
4. Adult males
5. Juvenile males
17
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
3.4
Response option feasibility analysis
Pups
Juveniles
Adult
Adult
Mother/pup
females
males
pairs
Response option A
(Moult/monitor)
Not
Low
High
High
Not
Feasible
Feasible
Response option B
(In-situ & release)
High
High
High
Moderate
High
Response option C
(In-situ & hold)
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Response option D
(In-situ &
Not
Moderate
Moderate
Low
High
translocate)
feasible
3.5. Considerations for the treatment of oiled sea lions:
Al Age-Classes:
• New Zealand sea lions have a conservation status of ‘nationally critical’ and are one of the
top conservation priority species in New Zealand.
• All age-classes will be candidates for euthanasia if an individual’s survival is unlikely and/or
undue suffering is occurring.
• Euthanasia decisions should be made by the attending veterinarian in consultation with
DOC.
• Al contaminated carcasses should be removed as hazardous waste, and disposed of in
consultation with DOC.
• Where possible necropsy of all dead sea lions should occur. Necropsy remains should be
treated as per above. Necropsy protocol are outlined in Appendix 5.
• Moulting occurs between January and May for this species (McConkey et al. 2002).
• Once individuals have been cleaned, are in good body condition and are bright and
responsive they can be released immediately into clean habitat.
• Response planning should be undertaken in consultation with Dr. Louise Chilvers, DOC sea
lion biologist, where possible (Appendix 3)
• If there is a delay in habitat cleaning then animals may need to be confined temporarily until
the habitat has been cleaned. Specific housing and husbandry requirements during any
captive period would need to be met. These are outlined in Appendices 9 & 10 respectively.
• Or alternatively, consideration may be given to the translocation of clean individuals into
clean habitat if shore-line clean-up operations are delaying release. Note that translocation
may result in animals swimming back into the contaminated environment. However,
18
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
mother-pup pairs may be good candidates for translocation, as the presence of a pup at the
translocation destination may minimise the likelihood of the mother returning to the
contaminated site in the short-term (Gentry 1998).
• Post-release monitoring is recommended for all rehabilitated pinnipeds (see Appendix 6).
• Capture techniques are outlined in Appendix 7
• Transport considerations are outlined in Appendix 8.
Adult & Juvenile sea lions:
• Response option A is a feasible option for adult male and female sea lions, except for
females with dependant pups. This is especially so if the oiling is relatively inaccessible to the
grooming animal or if a solid tar patch is causing the animal minimal distress.
• The treatment and rehabilitation of oiled adult females and juvenile sea lions is feasible
under response options B, C & D.
• Response options B, C & D are less feasible for adult males due to their size and strength.
Decisions regarding the capture and handling of adult males should be made on a case by
case basis during an event.
• Supplementary feeding adult sea lions in captivity should be unnecessary as all efforts
should be made to minimise the captive period to a few days (adults will routinely go
without feeding for 3 – 4 days in the wild. If adult sea lions need to be held for extended
periods, information on supplementary feeding can be found in Appendix 11.
Sea lion pups (non-weaned)
• The treatment and rehabilitation of oiled sea lion pups is feasible under both response
options B and C.
• Response option A is not considered a suitable response for pups as the toxic effects of any
oiling on a pup may have negative developmental effects.
• Response option D is not feasible for pups alone, however may be a preferred option for
mother/pup pairs.
• Al attempts to maintain the mother/pup bond should be made when considering the
treatment of oiled sea lion pups.
• Al efforts should be made to ensure sea lion pups do not become orphaned due to human
intervention during an oil spill.
• Pups are born in the months of December and January, and are weaned at 9 - 12 months of
age (Cawthorn 1993).
• Advice regarding handling young pinnipeds is given in Appendix 12.
Considerations for in-situ treatment of pups:
Temporary holding pens may need to be erected on-site until the habitat is cleaned.
Housing and husbandry needs during captive periods are discussed in Appendices 9 & 10
respectively.
Ideal y mothers and pups would be captured and held together.
19
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
However if pups are captured and held independently of their mothers; the duration of
captivity must be minimised to ensure that they are returned to their mothers for feeding
as soon as possible.
Appendix 11 provides information on nutritional requirements if supplementary feeding
during this period is required.
If habitat clean-up can be achieved promptly then supplementary feeding of pups may
not be necessary. However fluid therapy is likely to be required (Adult female foraging
trips are typically up to four days in duration; hence pups are accustomed to fast during
these periods).
Overcrowding in pens must be avoided as it can lead to asphyxiation and crushing
injuries. This is particularly important during warm weather.
20
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
3.6 Treatment procedure:
A list of equipment which may be necessary to facilitate treatment is provided as Appendix 2.
Intake:
As each oiled pinniped is captured it will proceed as follows:
Step 1:
Initiation of an individual medical record
Step 2:
Individual identification applied if necessary (see Appendix 13)
Step 3:
Clinical assessment, triage and medical stabilisation actions (see Appendix 14)
Step 4:
Enter dry holding enclosure to regain strength prior to cleaning
Cleaning methods
:
Cleaning must occur promptly to reduce the likelihood of organ toxicity. There are two cleaning
options for sea lions. The first is shaving small areas of affected pelage, and the second as washing
(
preferred), which is explained in depth below.
Shaving is deemed appropriate for juvenile and adult sea lions that are in good body condition and
who have only discrete patches of oil. Shaving is not a suitable option for pups as they are reliant on
an intact pelage for insulation. The time of year in relation to the moult may be a deciding factor in
the suitability of this method. It is envisaged that adults will need to be anaesthetised for shaving;
however juveniles may be able to be restrained physical y for shaving depending on the extent and
location of the oiling. See below for further notes on anaesthesia.
Pre-wash criteria:
On intake, oiled pinnipeds should be fully assessed by the attending veterinarian in accordance with
Appendix 14 and stabilised before washing. Individual treatment records should also be initiated for
each admitted animal in accordance with Appendix 15. It may take up to 48 hours to address
thermoregulatory issues, hydration and nutrition, such that individuals are strong enough to
undergo washing. Normal core body temperatures for pinnipeds range from 36.6 – 39.0°C (OWCN
2004), and normal packed cell volumes (PCVs) of 51% + 2% for adult NZ sea lions and 52% + 3% for
juvenile NZ sea lions (Costa et al 1997).
Anaesthesia:
Sea lions of all age-classes will likely need to be anaesthetised for washing. Appropriate anaesthesia
techniques are to be determined by the attending veterinarian from Massey University in
consultation with others as necessary. Anaesthesia techniques are outlined in Appendix 16.
Wash protocol (adapted from Oiled Wildlife Care Network 2004):
During the wash/rinse process pinnipeds should be monitored very closely for thermoregulatory
distress and wash/rinse water temperature altered appropriately. Hyperthemia is common in
pinnipeds during the wash process, so water temperature may need to be decreased as necessary.
Various pre-treatments may be required to shift weathered oil or tar patches. Commonly used pre-
treatment agents include warmed (35°C) olive oil, canola oil or methyl oleate. Pre-treatments should
be used sparingly and only on stubborn contaminated areas. Pre-treatments are massaged into the
21
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
hair and should only be used for the minimum duration required to soften the contamination (no
more than 10 – 15 minutes).
Prepare a 5% detergent solution using thermal neutral (37°C) softened fresh water and your
detergent of choice (e.g. Tergo). Massage the detergent solution into the pelage then rinse under
moderate pressure (200 – 275 Kpa) in softened warm freshwater. Repeat this wash/rinse cycle until
all oil has been lifted from the pelage and there is no oil visible in the rinse water and no remaining
contaminant odour (Davis & Hunter et al 1995).
Perform a final rinse while still sedated. For sea lions this can be relatively quick; the anaesthesia can
then be reversed before the rinse process is finished in an outdoors pen with a pressure spray. Sea
lions can then be left to air dry naturally. Animals should be carefully monitored for signs of
dehydration during this period.
Lightly oiled pinnipeds can be ‘spot washed’ using the above techniques only on discrete areas of
pelage as necessary.
Washroom facility requirements are provided in Appendix 17.
Post-wash conditioning:
Once the wash/dry process is complete, individuals should be held in warm and sturdy dry
enclosures where they are able to be closely monitored until all signs of sedation have passed
(minimum 1 hour).
Post-wash conditioning for waterproofing is unnecessary for sea lions; instead the primary post-
wash objective is to release sea lions into clean habitat as soon as possible.
Release:
All decisions on release will be taken in consultation with DOC and appropriate iwi representatives.
The following release criteria should be met:
1. An individual maintains body temperature without assistance
2. No oil is detectable on the pelage
3. Normal relaxed grooming behaviour is observed
4. Good general health (normal blood values etc)
5. Clean individuals will only be released into clean habitat.
Where possible individuals will be released as close as practicable to the location from which they
were captured but individuals could potentially be released away from their capture site as long as
mother pup pairs are co-released.
Post – Release Monitoring:
Potential post-release monitoring techniques are outlined in Appendix 6. All post release monitoring,
in particular that which relies on tracking equipment to be attached, will be subject to the issuing of
the relevant DOC marine mammal research permits. DOC can however deploy transmitters etc for
management purposes without the need for a permit. It may be beneficial therefore that DOC lead
this work if possible to avoid delays.
22
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
Once released, monitoring should be conducted to identify pups that are orphaned. Decisions on
the fate of these pups must be made in conjunction with DOC. Note that temporary abandonments
of up to 10 days, fol owed by successful reunions, have been previously documented for NZ sea lions
(Simon Childerhouse pers. comm.).
Monitoring should also focus on identifying pups at risk of becoming re-contaminated through
contact with oiled mothers. In these circumstances mothers should be captured and cleaned by one
of the techniques outlined above.
The New Zealand Sea lion Trust conducts routine population monitoring on Otago beaches - they
may be able to assist with individual identification of affected animals on the mainland (in particular
mother/pup pairs)and post-release monitoring of oiled animals. The trust contacts are listed in
Appendix 2.
23
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
NZ Sea lions
4.
True seals
Introduction:
Like sea lions, phocids or true seals, such as elephant seals and leopard seals, do not rely in their fur
for insulation. Therefore treatment criteria and protocol as set out in section 3 for sea lions is
relevant to these species and should be used accordingly.
Of the true seals, elephant seals and leopard seals are the most common species encountered in
New Zealand waters. Elephant seals are occasional visitors to the NZ mainland, while leopard seal
visits are somewhat more common. Both species are frequent visitors to all NZ subantarctic islands,
with small breeding populations of elephant seals present on Campbel Island and the Antipodes
(Baker et al. 2010).
Elephant seals have a conservation status of ‘nationally critical’, hence should be prioritised at
triage during any oiled wildlife responses involving multiple species.
Crabeater, Ross and Weddell seals are all present in NZ Antarctic waters.
Responder Safety:
Due to their size, strength and potential aggression, specific safety protocols will need to be
developed should an oil spill impacts these species. Contacts are listed in Appendix 18 for
researchers who have worked with these species internationally and who may be able to provide
prompt advice on this topic.
24
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
International examples
5.
International Experience with Oiled Pinnipeds
5.1 Sanko Harvest Spill, Australia 1991:
During this event 211 New Zealand fur seals pups aged between 2 weeks and 2 months were
contaminated with Heavy Fuel Oil. They were treated in-situ over the pursuing days. The response is
detailed in the fol owing unpublished paper:
Gales 1991. New Zealand fur seals and oil: An overview of assessment, treatment, toxic effects and
survivorship. The 1991 Sanko Harvest Oil Spill. Report to the West Australian Department of
Conservation and Land Management, August 1991.
A copy of this paper can be found in the NZWHC OWR library
and can be requested by email:
[email address] 5.2 San Jorge Spill, Uruguay 1997:
During this event nearly 5000 South American fur seals pups aged between 2 - 3 months were
contaminated and died from crude oil contamination. The response to this remote event equated
simply to an operational clean-up, with no seals being treated and rehabilitated. The response is
detailed in the following paper:
Mearns, A.J., Levine, E. Yender, R., Helton, D. and T. Loughlin. 1999. Protecting fur seals during spill
response: Lessons from the
San Jorge (Uruguay) oil spill. Paper #32. International Oil Spill
Conference March 8-11, 1999, Washington State Convention Centre, Seattle
A copy of this paper can be found in the NZWHC, OWR library
and can be requested by email:
[email address]
5.3 The Marine Mammal Centre (TMMC), Sausalito, California:
The Marine Mammal Centre has dealt with a number of oiled California sea lions over the years,
However, as of October 2009 they had never dealt with adult fur seals (oiled or not) in a
rehabilitation setting, but are prepared to do so should the need arise in the future (D. Wickham
pers. comm.).
Case Study: Oiled California sea lion at TMMC –
Information presented by Scott Buhl during the OWCN Annual Rehabilitation Conference ‘Oilapalooza
2009’ San Diego, October 24 – 25 2009.
An adult female Californian sea lion suffering from domoic acid toxicity wandered into a waste oil pit
at a mechanical shop and became 98% oiled. The following points outline the key elements of
treatment:
25
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
International examples
• Admitted to TMMC where she was initially held in a dry pen. She was very stressed after
transport, and was washed immediately.
• Anaesthetised with isoflurane (gas then ET tube)
• Pre-treatment: warmed canola oil
• Wash: washed for 1 hour in warm water with Dawn detergent
• Rinse duration: unknown
• Towel dried
• Washed two more times over a week total
• Held total of 2 months until stable and deemed releasable (rehab duration was confounded
by domoic acid toxicity)
• When released she was 98% clear of oiling, the plan being that the remainder would be
moulted off.
• Just prior to release she was satellite tagged to facilitate post-release monitoring.
• Lessons:
o Wash should have been delayed for a few days until animal had stabilised
o Would recommend an injectable anaesthetic during wash as difficulties were had
maintaining the ET tube during the wash process and some soapy water was
inhaled.
o Need very large wash tub for sea lion
o For further information contact:
Frances Gulland, Scott Buhl & Erin Brodie, TMMC
5.4 SeaWorld San Diego (SWSD), San Diego, California:
SeaWorld San Diego dealt with numerous oiled sea otters during the Exxon Valdez spill, and assisted
during the development of the mobile otter rehabilitation housing system (as described in Williams
& Davies 1995). As of October 2009, SWSD had never dealt with oiled fur seals, but were well
equipped to do so if necessary, having rehabilitated adult fur seals for other reasons (entanglement
etc. M. Bressler pers. comm.). SWSD personnel are of the strong opinion that access to salt water is
essential for regaining water proofing in both otters and fur seals (M. Bressler pers. comm. Note this
is contrary to Dave Jessup’s recent work as outlined below).
5.5 Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care and Research Centre, DFG, Santa Cruz, California:
The Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care & Research Centre (MWVCRC) is the primary sea otter
rehabilitation facility in California. This is the only fur bearing marine mammal that they deal with.
Case Study: Olive the sea otter:
•
This case study was presented by Dave Jessup at the OWCN Annual Rehabilitation
Conference ‘Oilapalooza 2009’ San Diego, October 24 – 25 2009.
• Pre-treatment: warmed olive oil massaged into fur for 30 min
• Wash process: 45 minute wash in 2.5% Dawn solution at 29.5°C
26
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
International examples
• Rinse process: 40 minute rinse in soft fresh water at 35°C. When subcutaneous temperature
dropped the rinse water temperature was increased to 38°C until subcutaneous
temperature had normalised.
• Post-wash period: Immediate access to softened fresh water. 24 hours inside, then
transferred to outdoor enclosure. During early stages of rehab, pool temperature was
increased then gradually decreased to normal sea water temperature.
• Cost: $USD5000 for 2.5 weeks of care (this cost does not include facility construction as the
facility was already in existence.
• For further information contact Dave Jessup and see Jessup et al 2009 in the proceedings of
the Effects of Oil on Wildlife Conference. This study scientifically quantified the benefits of
using softened fresh water during the waterproofing phase as opposed to sea water via the
use of PIT tags which measured subcutaneous temperature to objectively assess
waterproofing status on a number of experimentally oiled otters. The abstract can be
downloaded from the fol owing link:
http://www.eowconference09.org/wp-content/uploads/15-4-jessup.pdf
5.6 Comparison between California marine mammal rehabilitation facilities:
SWSD
TMMC
MWVCRC
Access to sea water
Preferential
Preferential
Avoid
during early rehab
Access to fresh water
Avoid
Avoid
Preferential *
during early rehab
Manual grooming
Preferential
Unnecessary
Unknown
Detergent choice
Dawn
Dawn
Dawn
Pre-treatment choice
Unknown
Canola oil
Olive oil
Opinion regarding
Prefer to wash or leave Prefer to wash or leave Not applicable
shaving tar patches on to moult
to moult
sea lions
* Jessup et al 2009 showed a clear scientific benefit of using softened fresh water in conditioning
pools for sea otters during OWR. This is likely to also be the case for NZ fur seals.
27
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
References
6.
References
Bradshaw C.J.A., Lalas C., Perriman L., Harcourt R.G., Best H., Davis L.S. 1999. Seasonal oscillation in
shore attendance and transience of New Zealand fur seals. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77: 814-823.
Cawthorn, M. 1993. Census and population estimation of the Hooker’s sea lion at the Auckland
Islands, December 1992 – February 1993. Department of Conservation, Wel ington.
Childerhouse, S and N. Gales. 1998. Historical and modern distribution and abundance of the New
Zealand sea lion
Phocarctos hookeri. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 25: 1 - 16
Costa, D.P., Gales, N, J. and D.E. Crocker. 1998. Blood volume and diving ability of the New Zealand sea
lion,
Phocarctos hookeri. Physiological Zoology 71 (2): 208 - 213
Davis, R.W. and L. Hunter. 1995. Cleaning and restoring the fur.
In Emergency care and rehabilitation of
oiled sea otters: A guide for oil spills involving fur-bearing mammals. T.M. Wil iams and R.W. Davis
(eds.). University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, Alaska. pp. 95 – 102
Gales 1991. New Zealand fur seals and oil: An overview of assessment, treatment, toxic effects and
survivorship. The 1991 Sanko Harvest Oil Spill. Report to the West Australian Department of
Conservation and Land Management, August 1991.
Gentry, R.L. 1998. Behaviour and ecology of the northern fur seal. Princeton University Press,
Princeton.
Harcourt, R.G., Bradshaw, C.J.A., Dickson, K. and L.S. Davis. 2002. Foraging ecology of a generalist
predator the female New Zealand fur seal. Marine Ecology-Progress Series, 2002; 227:11-24
Hitchmough, R., Bull, L. and P. Cromarty. 2007. New Zealand Threat Classification Lists
2005.Department of Conservation Publication 236, Wellington, New Zealand.
Horning, M. and F. Trillmich. 1997. Development of hemoglobin, hematocrit and erythrocyte values in
Galapagos fur seals. Marine Mammal Science 13(1): 100 – 113
Hunt, T.D., Ziccardi, M.H., Gul and, F.M.D., Yochem, P.K., Hird, D.W., Rowles, T. and J.A.K. Mazet.
2008. Health risks for marine mammal workers. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 81: 81 - 92
Jessup, D.A., Murray, M.A., Casper, D., Massey, J.G. and M. Ziccardi. 1999. Thermal Imaging and
Subcutaneous Temperature Monitoring for Oiled Sea Otters. Effects of Oil on Wildlife Conference: 5
– 9 October 2009, Tallinn, Estonia.
King, C.M. 2008. A photographic guide to mammals of New Zealand. New Hol and Publishers.
Mackereth, G.F., Webb, K.M., O’Keefe, J.S., Duignan, P.J. and J. Kittelberger. 2005. Serological survey of
pre-weaned New Zealand fur seals (
Arctocephalus forsteri) for brucellosis and leptospirosis. New
Zealand Veterinary Journal 53 (6): 428 - 432
28
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
References
MacKereth, G. 2005. Marine mammal zoonoses and zooanthroponoses: a New Zealand context.
Unpublished Report August 2005, Investigation and Diagnostic Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and
Forestry, Upper Hutt, New Zealand
Mattlin, R.H., Gales, N.J. and D.P. Costa. 1998. Seasonal dive behaviour of lactating New Zealand fur
seals (
Arctopcephalus forsteri). Canadian Journal of Zoology 76: 350 - 360
McConkey, S., Lalas, C. And Dawson, S. 2002. Moult and changes in body shape and pelage in
known-age male New Zealand sea lions (
Phocarctos hookeri). New Zealand Journal of Zoology 29:
53-61
Mearns, A.J., Levine, E., Yender, R. and D. Helton. 1999. Protecting fur seals during spill response:
Lessons from the
San Jorge (Uruguay) oil spill. International Oil Spill Conference, number 32.
O’Hara, T.M. and T.J. O’Shea 2001.Toxicology.
In: CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine,
Second Edition, L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland (eds.), CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. Pp. 471-
520
Oiled Wildlife Care Network. 2004. Protocols for the care of oil affected mammals. M. Haulena, S.
Johnson, J. Mazet, P.Yochem & M. Ziccardi eds. Davis, CA: University of California, Wildlife Health
Center.
Reidman, M. 1990. The pinnipeds: seals, sea lions and walruses. University of California Press,
Berkeley.
Sepulveda, M.S. 1999. Age related changes in hematocit, haemoglobin and plasma protein in Juan
Fernadez fur seals (
Arctocephalus philippii). Marine Mammal Science 15 (2): 575 - 581
Spence-Bailey, L.M., Verrier, D. and J.P.Y Arnould. 2007. The physiological and behavioural development
of diving in Australian fur seal (
Arctocephalus pusil us doriferus) pups. Journal of Comparative Physiology
B. 177: 483 – 494
Townsend, A.J., de Lange, P.J., Duffy, C.A.J., Miskelly, C.M., Mol oy, J., and D. Norton. 2008. New
Zealand Threat Classification System Manual. Wellington, Department of Conservation.
Williams, T.M. and R.W. Davis. 1995. Emergency care and rehabilitation of oiled sea otters: A guide for
oil spills involving fur-bearing mammals. University of Alaska Press, Fairbanks, Alaska.
29
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
APPENDICES
30
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Marine mammal zoonoses and zooanthroponoses: a New Zealand context Appendix 1
30 August 2005: Report prepared by Dr Graham Mackereth, Principal Adviser / Incursion
Investigator, Investigation and Diagnostic Centre- Wallaceville, Box 40742, Ward St, Upper Hutt,
Email:
[email address]
[This report is included with the authors expressed permission]
Introduction
Surveillance in marine mammals and new technology is revealing novel evidence of agents such as
brucellosis, in New Zealand marine mammals, giving rise to concern about their zoonotic potential.
This report compiles monographs on agents of marine mammals that may cause zoonoses.
Each agent is discussed in terms of its general worldwide status and then its status in New Zealand.
Details of the actual zoonosis and means of infection are given and the infectious hazards implicit in
working with marine mammals identified. In addition to consideration of human infections derived
from marine mammals the possibility of reverse zoonosis or zooanthroponoses, is considered for
each agent. Precautions are suggested for each agent to prevent human and marine mammal
infections.
Advice concerning zoonoses and zooanthroponoses and suitable for employees directed to work
with marine mammals, is summarised (Table 1) with reference to specific infectious agents.
An effort has been made to place the risk of infection by a particular agent in context. Many of the
agents are more commonly found in the environment, on food, in domestic animals or in other
people, than in marine mammals. It is important that when communicating such risks that the
overview is given and unnecessary anxiety is avoided.
The following agents were considered zoonoses or zooanthroponoses worthy of discussion:
1.
Brucel a spp
2. Camphylobacter
3. Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
4. Influenza A virus
5. Klebsiel a pneumoniae
6. Leptospirosis
7. Mycoplasma
8. Poxvirus
9. Salmonella
10. Tuberculosis
In compiling the monographs I have relied on the Handbook of Zoonoses, second edition by George
Berin and Infectious disease of Wild mammals, third edition, by Williams and Barker. Essential to this
work were the various publications and reports of Padraig Duignan.
31
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Monographs
1
Brucella species
General status
Brucel a spp were first recovered from sea mammals in 1994, and since then have been isolated or
detected serologically in a wide range of marine mammals.
Brucel a spp in marine mammals appear
to be wel host-adapted and cause relatively little pathology in the primary host (Foster et al 2002).
Reproductive disease characteristic of smooth
Brucel a spp has been observed in dolphins. Two
bottlenose dolphins (
Tursiops truncatus) aborted fetuses that died as a result of
Brucel a infection.
Placentitis occurred in both cases (Miller et al 1999). Two species of marine
Brucel a spp have been
proposed,
B. pinnipediae found in pinnipeds (seals, sea lions and walruses) and
B. cetaceae from
cetaceans (Cloeckaert et al 2003).
NZ status
Evidence of brucellosis in marine mammals in New Zealand is limited due to a lack of surveillance.
Opportunistic testing of serum and tissues from Hector’s dolphin have tested positive to ELISA and
PCR tests for smooth
Brucel a and marine
Brucel a spp respectively (McDonald et al. 2006).
Zoonosis
In 1999 the Veterinary Record reported that a researcher in the United Kingdom, working with
strains of
Brucel a isolated from marine mammals, reported suffering from continuing headaches,
lassitude and severe sinusitis (Brew et al 1999). A rising titre to
Brucel a antibodies was observed and
marine
Brucel a was isolated from blood samples.
There have been no reported cases of marine
Brucel a infection in people working with marine
mammals (so far as I am aware). Two cases in Peruvian males have been reported in the literature
and one case in a South Auckland man is in press. Contact with marine mammals has been excluded
in all three cases. All patients did consume raw fish. Domestic animals have been shown to be
susceptible to Marine
Brucella strains. As
Brucel a has yet to be demonstrated in fish it is more likely
the patients were infected from contact with raw milk from domestic cattle or goats (Peruvian cases)
or from slaughter and dressing of pigs (South Auckland case).
Means of infection
People become infected from contact with blood or aborted materials of clinically affected animals.
Infection gains entry through abraded skin or mucous membranes or by inhalation. Typically,
abattoir workers and veterinarians are at risk from infection in countries where smooth
Brucel a spp
are endemic in livestock.
Hazard identification
• Blood from unhealthy marine mammals.
• Aborted materials
Zooanthroponoses
• Infection of marine mammals from humans is unlikely
Precautions
Do not handle aborted materials or open carcasses without gloves, nose and mouth mask, and eye
protection (hereon referred to as protective clothing). Do not handle unhealthy marine mammals or
open carcasses if there are cuts or abrasions to the hands or arms. Wear a waterproof apron when
opening carcasses. Cleaning and disinfection of hands and exposed skin should be carried out prior
to consuming food and drink.
32
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
2
Campylobacter
General status
The genus
Campylobacter contains 13 species and is wide spread among humans, mammals and
birds. Enteric
Campylobacter, such as
C. jejuni and
C. coli occur naturally in birds and mammals and
are sometimes pathogenic.
Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni colonizes the intestine of chickens, turkeys, and waterfowl but is
generally non-pathogenic in mature poultry. It is estimated that over half of all commercial broiler
and turkey flocks harbour
C jejuni . The organism has been isolated from numerous birds, including
Columbae and domestic and free-living
Galliformes and
Anseriformes.
For decades, wild birds have been considered natural vertebrate reservoirs of
Campylobacter spp.
and are frequently mentioned as possible vectors for transmission to poultry, cattle, and humans
(Merck Veterinary Manual).
New Zealand status
Campylobacter spp, with only minor sequence difference in 16sRNA from
C jejuni and
C lari, were
isolated from marine birds including apparently healthy gentoo and macaroni penguins sampled on
Bird Island, South Georgia (Duignan, 2001).
Campylobacter sp infection is suspected as the cause of an outbreak of acute septicaemia and
necrotising vasculitis in New Zealand sea lions in 1998. There is no evidence that this species is
zoonotic.
Zoonosis
Campylobacteriosis is a significant enterocolitis of man acquired through consumption of
undercooked poultry meat contaminated with
Campylobacter jejuni.
Campylobacter jejuni is the
predominant species associated with food-borne infection derived from poultry.
Campylobacter coli and
C lari are occasionally recovered from the intestinal tract of poultry, and both have been
implicated in food-borne infection.
C. jejuni frequently contaminates raw chicken. Surveys show that 20 to 100% of retail chickens are
contaminated. Raw milk is also a source of infections. The bacteria are often carried by healthy
cattle and by flies on farms. Non-chlorinated water may also be a source of infections. However,
properly cooking chicken, pasteurizing milk, and chlorinating drinking water will kill the bacteria.
Zooanthroponoses
Unknown
Means of infection
Consumption of contaminated chicken, water or milk.
Hazard identification
People with enteritis or diarrhoea are a potential hazard to marine mammals.
Precautions
People with enteritis or diarrhoea should not handle marine mammals. Cleaning and disinfection of
hands and exposed skin should be carried out prior to and after handling marine mammals,
especially before consuming food or drink.
Rookeries should be protected from livestock, effluent and sewage.
33
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
3
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae
General status
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae is found throughout the world. Swine are an important reservoir of
infection, however the organism is a saprophyte (found in the environment) and affects a wide
range of vertebrates and invertebrates: including birds, fish, dolphins, seals and sea lions, and has
been isolated from the slime layer of marine and freshwater fish and from crocodiles.
The bacteria are transmitted through ingestion, or entry of the organism through cuts and abrasions.
The disease takes on two forms: a skin form and a septicaemic form, the latter can be fatal.
Cetaceans seem more susceptible than pinnipeds.
New Zealand status
Outbreaks of economic significance are uncommon except in turkeys. In 1979 an out break occurred
on a large duck farm, involving 10-30% of the young birds (Anonymous, 1980). In 1996 a 5-month-
old captive little spotted kiwi died suddenly having been treated 6 weeks earlier previously for a
respiratory illness. One of the findings was a moderate growth of
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolated from the lung (Black, 1996).
An outbreak of
E. rhusiopathiae occurred in juvenile Kakapo translocated from Codfish Island to
Chalky Island during July 2004 (McInnes, 2005).
Zoonosis
Sealing and whaling are among many occupations associated with infection of people. The most
common infection is erysipeloid, caused by contamination of cuts or wounds, and resulting 2 to 7
days later in a localised skin infection of the fingers or hands with reddened edges, and swel ing. The
non-pathological term speck finger may have been used for this infection.
A serious septicaemic form is known, but is rare in non-immunosuppressed people. Human cases
have been fatal when the disease progressed to an infection of the blood and spreads throughout
the body, however infection is readily treated with antibiotics.
Zooanthroponoses
Unknown
Means of infection
Most human cases involve localized infections resulting from entry through a cut or abrasion in the
skin.
Hazard identification
Healthy marine mammals may have skin lesions and the clinically ill could have septicaemia.
Precautions
Protective clothing should be used when handling marine mammals. When opening a carcass use an
apron and a chain mesh glove on the non-knife hand. People with cuts or abrasions on the hands
and arms should not handle diseased marine mammals. Dis-infect hands and exposed skin before
and after handling marine mammals.
34
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
4
Influenza A virus
Humans can become infected with Influenza types A, B and C. Influenza B viruses appear to only
infect man (and laboratory rodents) and will not be discussed further here; they cause flu outbreaks
every few years. Influenza C also only affects humans and causes only mild illness.
Influenza A viruses naturally infect man, several other mammalian species and a wide variety of
birds. Interspecies transmission may occur. Epidemics of respiratory disease in man have been
caused by influenza a subtypes H1N1 (1918-19, "Spanish flu,"), H2N2 (1957-58, "Asian flu,"), and
H3N2 (1968-69, " Hong Kong flu,"), and possibly H3N8. Subtypes H1N1 and H3N2 are frequently
isolated from swine and are still in circulation in humans. In horses outbreaks of respiratory disease
have been caused by H7N7 and H3N8. Respiratory disease in seals has been associated with
subtypes H7N7 and H4N5 and subtypes H1N1 and H10N4 have been isolated from whales.
The World Health Organisation guards against epidemics or respiratory disease by monitoring
influenza subtypes and preparing vaccines.
There are 16 H subtypes and 9 N subtypes of influenza A viruses and these, in many different
combinations, have been found in birds. Most infections in birds are inapparent infections sustained
by faecal oral infection cycle with replication in the intestine. Virulence, associated with H5 and H7
subtypes, is associated with the ability to spread to other tissues. Invasion and spread to tissues
occurs due to a number of factors associated with the HA protein, and two strains of the same
subtype can vary in virulence for domestic birds.
Traditional y concerns about pandemic viruses have been associated with the transmission of
pathogenic strains to people from an intermediate mammalian host such as pigs. In contrast, the
outbreaks in poultry of H5N1 in Asia and H7N7 in the Netherlands are examples of outbreaks that
directly cause human infections and deaths. More recently direct infections from birds or avian virus
contaminated environments to humans have occurred.
Authorities respond to H5 and H7 in poultry by stamping out or phasing out poultry infected with
low pathogenic subtypes and stamping out highly pathogenic subtypes.
General status of marine mammals
In 1979 seals in New England were found with signs of respiratory distress and frothy blood nasal
discharge. Infection with H7N7 influenza A was confirmed in association with haemorrhagic
pneumonia. In 1982 a H4N5 virus was isolated from harbour seals with bronchopneumonia. The
findings gave rise to speculation that earlier outbreaks of pneumonia in harbour seals, Crabeater
seals, and grey seals may have been caused by influenza virus.
Although no illness has been attributed to influenza A among marine mammals of the Pacific, (H1N3)
was isolated from a minke whale caught in the South Pacific during the 1975/76 whaling season. A
close antigenic, genetic and biological relationship was demonstrated between isolates of influenza
A from a tern and the whale. Close associations have also been demonstrated between isolates from
ducks and seals in the Atlantic.
New Zealand status
Five avian influenza virus subtypes (H1N3; H4N6; H5N2-low pathogenicity; H6N4; H11N3) have been
isolated from birds in New Zealand. All isolates have been made from apparently clinically healthy,
free-living mallard ducks (Stanislawek 2001). In 1996 a survey of pigs detected H3N2 of likely human
35
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
origin in 89% of pigs tested. The predominant subtype may vary. In 1992 H3N2 dominated, where as
H1N1 predominated in 1992. in found in humans. H3N2 viruses have often been associated with
more severe disease manifest as excess pneumonia and increased influenza mortality.
Although no investigation of influenza infection has occurred among New Zealand’s marine
mammals, the potential for transmission from birds to marine mammals exists. Overseas,
introduction of avian viruses into sea mammals has occurred on several recent and independent
occasions (Duignan 2000).
Anseriformes (ducks, geese, swans) and
Charadri formes (gulls, terns,
surfbirds and sandpipers) are believed to be the main reservoirs.
Zoonosis
In 1979 self-limiting conjunctivitis was reported in workers handling seals infected with H7N7 virus
(Swayne 2003). As H7N7 has been reported in seals the signs and symptoms of the subtype
associated with an outbreak in poultry in the Netherlands are of interest. The Netherlands reported
that 83 confirmed cases of human H7N7 influenza virus infections had occurred among poultry
workers and their families since the H7N7 outbreak began. The vast majority (79) of these people
had conjunctivitis, and 6 of those with conjunctivitis also reported influenza-like illness (ILI)
symptoms (e.g., fever, cough, muscle aches). One person had ILI only (no conjunctivitis) and 2
persons had mild illness that could not be classified as ILI or conjunctivitis. In addition, one
individual, a 57-year-old veterinarian who visited one of the affected farms in early April, died on
April 17 of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and related complications from H7N7
infection.
Means of infection
In such situations where animals have clinical signs of respiratory illness, people should avoid
contact with the animals or contaminated surfaces. Infected animals exhale the virus and shed it in
their saliva, nasal secretions, and faeces. It is believed that most cases of bird flu infection in humans
have resulted from contact with infected poultry or contaminated surfaces.
Hazard identification
• Sick marine mammals ( especially those with pneumonia)
• Areas contaminated with sick marine mammals
Zooanthroponoses Marine mammals are likely to be susceptible influenza A virus from people.
Precautions
First responders (incursion investigators MAF Biosecurity) to possible influenza infections in animals
and birds in New Zealand are vaccinated for influenza (to prevent dual infections and possible
reassortment of virus) and have prophylactic access to the antiviral Tamiflu. Close fitting face masks
are on hand to prevent conjunctival infection.
Marine mammals showing signs of pneumonia (respiratory distress or discharges from the blow hole
or nose) should not be handled without protective clothing. Cleaning and disinfection of hands and
exposed skin should be carried out prior to consuming food and drink.
People coming down with the flu and those with the flu must not work with marine mammals.
36
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
5
Klebsiella pneumoniae
General status
Klebsiel a pneumoniae is known as a resident of the intestinal tract in about 40% of man and
animals. It is considered to be an opportunistic human pathogen meaning that under certain
conditions it may cause disease.
Klebsiel a pneumoniae is also well known in the environment and
can be cultured from soil, water and vegetables. In fact, it is likely that we have
K. pneumoniae in our
intestine from eating raw foods such as salads.
Klebsiel a pneumoniae in humans forms part of the
normal flora of the gastrointestinal tract, oropharynx
, and respiratory tract. It is a pathogen
following invasion of the lungs or wounds, particularly burns, and is a common cause of hospital
acquired urinary tract infections. Septicaemia is one outcome of infection. New manifestations of
disease humans have been reported in Asia, in the form of liver abscesses and meningitis (Ko et al
2002).
The virulence of
Klebsiella is not wel understood, but its antiphagocytic capsule plays a role in lung
infections by preventing phagocytosis. It is thought that aerobactin, an iron-binding protein, also
contributes to virulence.
K. pneumoniae is now among the most common gram-negative bacteria
encountered by physicians worldwide. This is probably due to the bacterium's antibiotic resistance
properties. In one study multidrug-resistant
K. pneumoniae were frequently detected in test samples
collected from animal farms and retail meat products. They were resistant to ampicil in, tetracycline,
streptomycin, gentamycin, and kanamycin (Kim et al 2005).
Klebsiel a pneumoniae has been isolated from the respiratory system of Belunga whales, California
sea lion, common dolphin and pacific white sided dolphin (Higgins, 2000) and associated with
septicaemia in a pilot whale.
New Zealand status
An unusual disease presentation in New Zealand sea lions at Sandy Bay rookery, Auckland Islands
was seen for the first time in 2002. The presentation was characterised by systemic bacterial
infection that caused suppurative polyarthritis, severe necrotising fasciitis, myositis and
osteomyelitis, suppurative peritonitis, pleuritis, or meningitis. For 41 pups, this syndrome was the
primary cause of death and for an additional 16 it was a contributing factor along with hookworm
infection or trauma. A consistent isolate was
Klebsiel a pneumoniae, with frequent isolations of
Salmonella spp (Duignan 2003).
Zoonosis
Unknown
Means of infection
Normally resent in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract. The organism can invade the lungs or
cause septicaemia following wounds or order disease events in the host.
Hazard identification
Marine mammals with abscesses or septicaemia are a potential hazard.
Zooanthroponoses
Marine mammals are at risk of the introduction of new strains when handled by humans.
Precautions
Disinfect hands prior to handling marine mammals and disinfect equipment prior to use with marine
mammals. Wear protective clothing when handling marine mammals.
37
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
6
Leptospirosis
General status
Leptospirosis in marine mammals can cause fever, petechial haemorrhages, hepatic and renal
failure, abortion and death. The disease is common in California sea lions (
Zalophus californianus)
and northern fur seals (
Callorhinus ursinus). Four epidemics in California sea lions were reported
between 1981 and 1994. Of 2,338 stranded sea lions, 33% had clinical signs of leptospirosis,
including depression, anorexia, polydypsia, dehydration, and reluctance to use their hind flippers
(Gulland et al 1996). Leptospirosis in northern fur seals has been reported with interstitial nephritis
in adults and multiple haemorrhages in neonates (Smith et al 1977). Serology has implicated
serovars Pomona, Hardjo, and Grippotyphosa as causes of leptospirosis in pinnipeds, while serovar
Pomona has been isolated on a number of occasions from diseased California sea lions (Gulland et al
1996).
New Zealand status
Eight serovars of
Leptospira within two pathogenic species have been isolated and confirmed as
being present in New Zealand. These are serovars Australis, Canicola, Copenhageni and Pomona
within the species
L. interrogans, and serovars Balcanica, Hardjobovis, Tarrasovi and Ballum within
the species
L. borgpeterseni . Serovars Canicola and Australis have only been isolated from human
patients in this country.
In 2001 101 pre-weaned New Zealand fur seal pups were serologically tested for leptospirosis.
Thirteen of the seals were suspicious or positive to serovars Canicola, Hardjo, or Pomona. One seal
of 98 tested for
L. interrogans serovar Canicola was positive, 3/101 (3.0%) tested for
L. interrogans serovar Hardjo were positive, and 3/103 (2.9%) tested for
L. interrogans serovar Pomona were
positive. The highest titres (12,800) were found to serovar Pomona (In press).
While the serological profiles provide evidence of exposure to a
Leptospira sp, further studies are
required to confirm the presence of
Leptospira sp, by isolation or demonstration of the bacterium in
association with interstitial nephritis.
L. interrogans Pomona and
L. borgpetersenii Hardjobovis (serovar Hardjo) are maintained in New
Zealand pigs and cattle respectively. Opportunities for transmission from domestic cattle or pigs to
New Zealand fur seals may occur on mainland rookeries. To sustain infection in seals the
Leptospira sp would have to be maintained in the adult New Zealand fur seal.
If
Leptospira spp are maintained in adult New Zealand fur seals, then the suckling pups could
become infected by direct contact with the females, their urine, or effluent. The common natural
routes of infection are believed to be via the conjunctiva, oral or nasal mucosa, or damaged skin
(Marshall et al 2002).
Care should be exercised when handling New Zealand fur seals to prevent human infection or
inadvertent transfer of infection to another species of marine mammal.
Zoonosis
Leptospirosis in humans is an acute febrile generalised disease arising from a bacteraemia and
generalised vasculitis, with many possible non-specific clinical presentations and course. Subclinical
and inapparent infections are common. Most patients present with sudden onset of headache,
muscle pains and tenderness, and fever, sometimes with rigours, accompanied by nausea with or
without vomiting, conjunctival suffusion, a transient skin and mucosal rash and by photophobia and
38
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
other signs of meningism. In the mild form the patient may feel better at the end of the septicaemic
phase (4-7days) and organ function may recover 3-6 weeks after onset.
Means of infection
Urine is a common source of human infection as
Leptospira spp are carried in the kidneys of other
wise healthy animals. Leptospira survive well in water. Contact or ingestion of contaminated water
or soil can also result in human infection. In addition to urine, the blood and tissues of animals with
acute leptospirosis could be infectious, and care should be taken when opening such a carcass.
Hazard identification
• Contaminated areas of a rookery
• Urine of healthy animals
• Aborted materials
• Blood, urine and tissues of unhealthy animals
Zooanthroponoses
• Infection of marine mammals from humans is unlikely
Precautions
Prevent contact with urine or contaminated water by use of waterproof gloves. If opening a carcass
prevent wet contact by using protective clothing. People with cuts or abrasions on the hands and
arms should not open carcasses. Cleaning and disinfection of hands and exposed skin should be
carried out prior to consuming food and drink.
Rookeries should be protected from livestock, effluent and sewage.
39
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
6
Mycoplasma
General status
Mycoplasma are a diverse group of small bacteria that lack a cell wall. They can be isolated from the
mucous membranes of healthy animals, and occasionally cause or are involved in disease. They are
difficult to isolate and probably occur in all mammals even where infection is un-described. Signs of
infection include septicaemia, polyarthritis, or keratoconjunctivitis.
Invasion with Mycoplasma may be secondary to other primary diseases.
M phocidae was isolated
from the respiratory tract of harbour seals during an epidemic of Influenza A pneumonia on the New
England Coast (Madoff et al, 1982).
M phocarhinis and
M phocacrerbrale were isolated from the
internal organs of moribund or dead harbour seals during a morbillivirus epidemic (Kirchoff et al,
1989).
Mycoplasma spp are considered host specific with a few exceptions, and are not usually implicated
as zoonotic infections. Madoff et al (1991) isolated
M. phocacrebrale from a lesion (seal finger) on a
human handler bitten by a seal and also from the teeth of the same seal.
Due to the absence of a cell wall many antibiotics are ineffective.
Mycoplasma spp are sensitive to
tetracyclines. Cases of seal finger that respond to tetracycline and not penicil in may be caused by
Mycoplasma, the reverse may be true for
Erysipleothrix.
New Zealand status
Unknown.
Mycoplasma spp probably occur in all mammals even where infection is un-described.
Zoonosis
In 1994 a DOC staff member was bitten on the hand by a New Zealand fur seal. Three days after the
bite the hand was swol en and tender. Over the next 20 days the hand swel ed slowly and was
painful. The infection did not respond to Augmentin, Noroxin or erythromycin. On day 23,
tetracycline was prescribed and the swelling and pain reduced very quickly to full recovery
(Cawthorn, 1994).
Zooanthroponoses
Unknown
Means of infection
Cuts to the hands, pre-exisiting or sustained when opening carcasses, or bites may lead to localised
infection with bacteria and
Mycoplasma.
Hazard identification
• Animals that may bite.
• Needles or knives that may cut or prick the user or assistant.
• Previously sustained cuts or abrasions of the skin.
Precautions
Using protective clothing should be used when handling marine mammals. Correct restrain of
animals to prevent bites. When opening a carcass use an apron and a chain mesh glove on the non-
knife hand. People with cuts or abrasions on the hands and arms should not handle diseased marine
mammals. Dis-infect hands and exposed skin before and after handling marine mammals.
40
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
7
Parapoxvirus
General status
Human infections with animal parapoxviruses are normally due to occupational exposure. Most
animal poxviruses are not zoonotic, however four parapoxviruses occasionally cause infections in
humans: pseudocowpox, bovine popular stomatitis, orf (sheep scabby mouth) and seal parapoxvirus.
Seal parapoxvirus caused nodulous proliferative skin lesions about the mouth, neck flippers and
thoroax of captive grey seals. Individuals handling the seals also developed these nodules.
New Zealand status
Unknown
Zoonosis
Firm (proliferative) painful nodules appear at the site of infection and there may be a low fever and
swelling of the draining lymph node.
Means of infection
Human infection occurs due to direct contact with lesions or mechanical transfer to cuts or
abrasions.
Hazard identification
Seals with nodules in the skin are a hazard.
Zooanthroponoses
• Unknown
Precautions
People with cuts or abrasions should not handle seals. Gloves should be routinely worn.
41
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
8
Salmonella
General status
Salmonella spp are pathogens of people, livestock, wild mammals, birds, reptiles and even insects.
While some serotypes have a narrow host range, most have a broad host range. Although primarily
intestinal parasites of humans and animals, salmonellae are widespread in the environment and
commonly found in farm effluents, and human sewage.
Salmonellae survive well in the environment,
multiplying in water. Carriage of
Salmonella is common in healthy animals.
Salmonella spp can become established in animal production systems through cycles involving a
wide range of hosts and faecal contamination of grains and feed. Clinical disease may involve
enteritis, colitis or septicaemia.
Production processes that minimise contamination of food combined with the correct food
preparation and basic hygiene such as washing hands are necessary to prevent human infections.
Animals with salmonellosis should be handled with care; however infection normally occurs due to
ingestion of contaminated water or food.
New Zealand status
The
Salmonel a serotypes
S. Cerro and
S. Newport were isolated from New Zealand sea lions and
feral pigs on the Auckland Islands, and
S. Newport has been isolated from a New Zealand fur seal.
The source of infection is likely to be human waste in the marine environment (Fenwick et al, 2004).
Zoonosis
People are susceptible to infection, either by direct contact with infected animals or through their
products, as occurs in food born salmonellosis. In general, salmonellosis is more of a problem in
young or old people. Infection during pregnancy should be avoided due to high-fever related
complications.
A person in Otago became severely ill after contracting salmonellosis from a stranded fur seal in
2001.
Zooanthroponoses
Marine mammals are susceptible to
Salmonel a associated with human and agricultural waste.
People with enteritis or diarrhoea should not handle marine mammals.
Means of infection
Oral infection associated with poor hygiene or ingestion of faecal contaminated water or food.
Hazard identification
Faeces or contaminated areas of a rookery are a hazard.
Precautions
The aged, young or the pregnant should take extra care when handling sick marine mammals.
Protective clothing should be worn. Cleaning and disinfection of hands and exposed skin should be
carried out prior to and after handling marine mammals, especially before consuming food or drink.
People with enteritis or diarrhoea should not handle marine mammals.
Rookeries should be protected from livestock, effluent and sewage.
42
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
9
Tuberculosis
General status
Tuberculosis refers to the disease of people and other mammals caused by tubercle bacilli of the
tuberculosis complex:
Mycobacterium tuberculosis,
M. bovis,
M africanum and M microti. These
species of
Mycobacterium, termed ‘tuberculosis complex’, are distinguished from ‘tuberculoid
bacilli’, such as
M avium complex and
M marinum, and saprophytic bacilli such as
M pheli or
M
asiaticum, as they are contagious (transmitted person to person) rather than non-contagious
infections. They do not grow in the environment (soil and water) as do the tuberculoid and
saprophytic bacteria. All of these
Mycobacterium spp are cultured on artificial media, and this
distinguishes them from the cause of leprosy
M leprae and from
M paratuberculosis, a cause of
chronic enteritis in animals that requires special culture media.
Humans and animals vary in their susceptibility to
M bovis and
M tuberculosis, however prevalence
in a species reflects their level of exposure, and the disease may be indistinguishable. Lesions can be
extra-pulmonary or pulmonary. Pulmonary exudates are infectious and transmission may occur with
droplets in the air or contact with faeces that contain tubercle bacilli due to the swallowing of
pulmonary exudates. Tubercle lesions in the mammary lymph nodes or glands can lead to infection
by drinking unpasteurised milk, and pose a risk when draining externally of when they are incised
post-mortem.
Tuberculoid bacilli such as the
M avium complex are readily recovered from soil and water and may
also cause pulmonary disease indistinguishable from
M bovis and
M tuberculosis. Tuberculoid
infections are most frequently extrapulmonary (often unilateral infection of the high cervical lymph
nodes). The saprophytic bacil i are not pathogenic except in immuno-suppressed humans.
The name
Mycobacterium pinnipedii sp. nov. is proposed for a novel member of the M. tuberculosis
complex found in seals in Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, Great Britain and New Zealand (Cousins et
al 2003). The seal isolates could be distinguished from other members of the M. tuberculosis
complex on the basis of host preference and phenotypic and genetic tests. Pinnipeds appear to be
the natural host for this 'seal bacillus', although the organism is also pathogenic in guinea pigs,
rabbits, humans, Brazilian tapir, and, possibly, cattle. Infection caused by the seal bacillus is
predominantly associated with granulomatous lesions in the peripheral lymph nodes, lungs, pleura,
spleen and peritoneum. Cases of disseminated disease have been found. As with other members of
the
M. tuberculosis complex, aerosols are the most likely route of transmission.
New Zealand status
Mycobacterium pinnipedii sp. nov has been detected in free living New Zealand fur seals (Hunter et
al 1998) and
M bovis has been detected in captive New Zealand fur seals but not yet in wild New
Zealand fur seals.
M. bovis has not been detected in New Zealand marine mammals.
M bovis in New Zealand occurs in
humans, cattle, deer, pigs, sheep, possums, rabbits, hedgehogs, dogs, cats, and other animals
including kiwi.
M bovis survives wel in the environment, up to 4 weeks dry conditions and 5 months
cold damp conditions. Given its distribution and survival in the environment, exposure of fur seals in
mainland colonies may have occurred or could occur at any time.
Zoonosis
The proposed
M pinnipedii sp nov has an unknown zoonotic potential, however it should be
assumed to be as zoonotic as other members of the complex.
43
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Pulmonary tuberculosis due to
M bovis occurred in a seal trainer in 1988 at a marine park in Western
Australia at the same time it was isolated from Australian sea lions and New Zealand fur seals in the
park. It should be noted that the trainer would be as infectious for the seals, as seals with pulmonary
tuberculosis would be to him!
Tuberculoidosis (discharging abscesses) occurred in a scientist working on the Snares in 1972 after
sustaining a cut during the necropsy of a New Zealand sea lion that had white pulmonary lesions
(Cawthorn1994).
Means of infection
Pulmonary exudates are infectious and transmission may occur with droplets in the air or contact
with faeces that contain tubercle bacilli due to the swallowing of pulmonary exudates. Tubercle
lesions in the mammary lymph nodes or glands can lead to infection by drinking unpasteurised milk,
and pose a risk when draining externally of when they are incised post-mortem.
Hazard identification
• Sick marine mammals (especial y those with pneumonia)
• Areas contaminated with sick marine mammals
• Cuts sustained while working with carcasses
• Tuberculous lesions in the lymph nodes and thorax.
Zooanthroponoses Marine mammals are susceptible to tuberculosis from people. People with chronic coughs or open
sores should not work with marine mammals.
Precautions
Prevent contact with faeces or contaminated areas by use of waterproof gloves. If opening a carcass,
prevent wet contact by using protective clothing and an apron. A chain mesh glove should be used
on the non-knife hand when opening carcasses. People with cuts or abrasions on the hands and
arms should not open carcasses.
44
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Cleaning and disinfection
Disinfection may be ineffective if the wrong disinfectant, or the wrong dilution is used, or where
disinfectant is applied to soil or organic matter. The best practice is to establish a cleaning and
disinfection station and a clear sense of a clean zone and a dirty zone. Items should not pass from
the clean to the dirty zone unless they are clean, and items should not pass from the dirty to the
clean zone unless they are disinfected.
The cleaning and disinfection station should be established
before marine animals are handled, as
any attempt to set equipment up afterwards wil only contaminate the equipment, vehicles etc.
Containers with water and disinfectant at the specified dilution should be prepared, and all
equipment (boots) disinfected prior to use. Disinfectants do not work when things are dirty. Any
item that is difficult to clean, should be clean prior to use. Removal or of engrained dirt will be
necessary before subsequent disinfection.
Special containers and sealable plastic bags should be used for ‘sharps’ or items that are to be
discarded.
As a rule, disinfect hands, equipment, boots before and after contact. It is ill-advised to investigate
the problem and then find out that precautions should have been taken.
A variety of disinfectants are available for use, however some do not kill all the agents discussed
here and some are toxic or corrosive. Soap or detergent and water will not be effective against all
the zoonotic agents. Vircon S used at 2% dilution (routinely used at 1%) will kill all the above agents.
Care is required when using it to prevent eye splashing and items should be rinsed off after use to
prevent corrosion, however it is gentler than most other disinfectants.
Summary
Table 1 summarises the precautions required for each the zoonoses and zooanthroponoses with
reference to each agent. In general terms people working with marine mammals should:
1
Disinfect with 2% Vircon S before handling marine mammals
2
Disinfect with 2% Vircon S after handling marine mammals
3
Wear protective clothing (gloves, nose and mouth mask, eye protection) with marine
mammals
4
If opening a marine mammal carcass wear a plastic apron and chain mesh gloves
5
Wear a close fitting face mask when working with sick animals
6
Not handle marine mammals with cuts or abrasions on the hands or arms
7
Not handle marine mammals if (the person) has diarrhoea.
8
Not handle marine mammals if (the person) is coming down with the flu or have the flu.
9
Have current influenza vaccination and prophylactic Tamiflu if working with influenza cases.
10
Restrain animals that may bite appropriately, consider thick welders gloves for holding the
animal.
11
Be tested for TB before working with marine mammals if the people have a chronic cough.
Rookeries should be protected from livestock, livestock effluent and sewage
45
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Table 1: Risks and precautions associated with zoonoses or zooanthroponoses.
Agent
Zoonosis Zooanthroponoses
Agents may occur in Precautions
un-
healthy
healthy
animals
animals
Brucel a spp
Possible
Unknown
Yes
Yes
2, 3, 4, 6
Camphylobacter
Unknown Possible
Yes
Yes
1, 2, 7
Erysipelothrix
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
2, 3, 4, 6, 10
Influenza A virus
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9
Klebsiel a pneumoniae Possible Possible
Yes
Yes
1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
Leptospirosis
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
2, 3, 4, 6, 12
Mycoplasma
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
2, 3, 4, 6, 10
Poxvirus
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
2, 3, 4, 6
Salmonella
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
1, 2, 3, 7, 12
Tuberculosis
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12
Key
Precautions
1
Disinfect before handling marine mammals
2
Disinfect after handling marine mammals
3
Wear protective clothing (gloves, nose and mouth mask, eye protection) with marine mammals
4
If opening a marine mammal carcass wear a plastic apron and chain mesh gloves
5
Wear a close fitting face mask
6
Do not work with marine mammals with cuts or abrasions on the hands or arms
7
People with diarrhoea should not handle marine mammals.
8
People coming down with the flu or that have the flu should not work with marine mammals
9
Current influenza vaccination is recommended as is prophylactic Tamiflu.
10
Restrain animals that may bite appropriately, consider thick wielders gloves for holding the animal.
11
People with a chronic cough should be tested for TB before working with marine mammals.
12
Rookeries should be protected from livestock, livestock effluent and sewage
References
Anonymous. Erysipelas [in ducklings]. Surveillance, New Zealand 7, 17-8, 1980
Black A. Animal Health Laboratory Network review of diagnostic cases - April to June 1996.
Surveillance 23, 37-9, 1996
Brew SD, Perrett LL, Stack JA, MacMillan AP, Staunton NJ. Human exposure to Brucella recovered
from a sea mammal. Veterinary Record 144, 483, 1999
Cawthorn, Martin, Report to Department of Conservation Science and Research Division. Seal finger
and mycobacterial infections of man from marine mammals: occurrence, infection and treatment.
1994 Conservation advisory science notes. No 102. Department of Conservation, Box 10420
Wellington New Zealand.
Cloeckaert A, Grayon M, Grepinet O, Boumedine K. Classification of Brucella strains isolated from
marine mammals by infrequent restriction site-PCR and development of specific PCR identification
tests. Microbes and Infection 5, 593-602, 2003
46
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Cousins,-D-V; Williams,-S-N; Reuter,-R; Forshaw,-D; Chadwick,-B; Coughran,-D; Collins,-P; Gales,-N
Tuberculosis in wild seals and characterisation of the seal bacillus.Australian-Veterinary-Journal.
1993; 70(3): 92-97,
Duignan PJ. Diseases in New Zealand sea mammals. Surveillance 27, 9-15, 2000
Duignan PJ. Diseases of penguins. Surveillance Wellington 28, 5-11, 2001
Duignan PJ , Wilkinson I , Alley MR. New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) epidemic 2002
Journal: New Zealand Veterinary Journal 51(1), 46, 2003
Fenwick S. G. Duignan P. J., Nicol C. M.,. Leyland M. J and J. E. B. Hunter. A Comparison of
Salmonella Serotypes Isolated from New Zealand Sea Lions and Feral Pigs on the Auckland Islands by
Pulsed-field Gel Electrophoresis Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 40(3), 2004, pp. 566-570
Foster G, MacMillan AP, Godfroid J, Howie F, Ross HM, Cloeckaert A, Reid RJ, Brew S, Patterson IAP.
A review of Brucella sp. infection of sea mammals with particular emphasis on isolates from
Scotland. Veterinary Microbiology 90, 563-80, 2002
Gulland FMD, Koski M, Lowenstine LJ, Colagross A, Morgan L, Spraker T. Leptospirosis in California
sea lions (Zalophus californianus) stranded along the central California coast, 1981-1994. Journal of
Wildlife Diseases 32, 572-90, 1996
Higgins R. Bacteria and fungi of marine mammals: A review.
Canadian Veterinary journal, Volume 41,
pages 105-116, 2000.
Hunter,-J-E-B; Duigan,-P-J; Dupont,-C; Fray,-L; Fenwick,-S-G; Murray,-A. First report of potentially
zoonotic tuberculosis in fur seals in New Zealand. New-Zealand-Medical-Journal. 1998; 111(1063):
130
Cousins,-D-V; Bastida,-R; Cataldi,-A; Quse,-V; Redrobe,-S; Dow,-S; Duignan,-P; Murray,-A; Dupont,-C;
Ahmed,-N; Collins,-D-M; Butler,-W-R; Dawson,-D; Rodriguez,-D; Loureiro,-J; Romano,-M-I; Alito,-A;
Zumarraga,-M; Bernardelli,-A. Tuberculosis in seals caused by a novel member of the
Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex: Mycobacterium pinnipedi sp. nov. International-Journal-of-
Systematic-and-Evolutionary-Microbiology. 2003; 53(5): 1305-1314
Julian A SB. Quarterly review of diagnostic cases - January to March 2003. Surveil ance 30, 30-4, 2003
Kim SH. Chang KW, Tzou YM, Wei CI, and H. An. Dissemination of antibiotic-resistant genes of
Klebsiel a pneumoniae isolated from animal farms and retail meat products 2005. Dept. of
Nutritional Sciences, Oklahoma State Univ., 301 HES, Stillwater, OK 74078,
Kirchoff H. Binder A, Liess B. Fieldhoff KT. Pohlenz J. Stede M. and Willhaus T. Isolation of
Mycoplasma from disease seals. Veterinary Record 1989,124:513-514.
Ko WC, Paterson DL, Sagnimeni AJ et al, Community-Acquired
Klebsiel a pneumoniae Bacteremia:
Global Differences in Clinical Patterns. CDC Emerging infectious diseases Vol. 8, No. 2 February 2002
McDonald, W.L., Jamaludin, R., Mackereth, G., Hansen, M., Humphrey, S., Short, P., Taylor, T.,
Swingler, J., Dawson, C.E., Whatmore, A.M., Stubberfield, E., Perrett, L.L. and G. Simmons. 2006.
47
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Characterization of a
Brucel a sp. Strain as a Marine-Mammal Type despite Isolation from a Patient
with Spinal Osteomyelitis in New Zealand. J Clin Microbiol. 2006 December; 44(12): 4363–4370.
Madoff, S. Schooley, RT. Ruhnke HL. Del Guidice RA. Barker IK, Geraci J and Baker AS. Mycoplasma
pneumonia in phocid (harbor) seals. Review of infectious diseases 1981 S4:241.
Marshall RB, Manktelow BW. Fifty years of leptospirosis research in New Zealand: a perspective.
New Zealand Veterinary Journal 50(3 Supplement), 61-63, 2002
McInnes K. An outbreak of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae in the critically endangered kakpo (Strigops
habroptilus). Vetscript January February 2005, 26 -8, 2005
Miller WG, Adams LG, Ficht TA, Cheville NF, Payeur JP, Harley DR, House C, Ridgway SH. Brucella-
induced abortions and infection in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 30, 100-10, 1999
Smith A, Brown R, Skilling D, Bray H, Keyes M. Naturally-occuring leptospirosis in Northern Fur Seals
(Callorhinus ursinus). Wildlife Diseases 13, 144-5, 1977
Stanislawek, W.L., Serological survey for influenza A in New Zealand pigs. Surveillance, 2001. 28(2):
p. 7-8.
Swayne, D.E. and D.A. Halvorson, Influenza, in Diseases of Poultry, 11th Edition, Y.M. Saif, et al.,
Editors. 2003, Iowa State Press.
48
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Equipment for pinniped OWR:
Appendix 2
The following equipment is likely to be necessary during OWR involving pinnipeds.
Equipment
Use category
Leather welding gloves
PPE
Tyvex suits
PPE
Nitrile gloves (disposable)
PPE
Safety sunglasses
PPE
High visibility Safety Vests (as necessary, i.e., not capture!)
PPE
Whistles
PPE
Hibitane/Hibiclens disinfectant - 500ml
PPE
Wash PPE – aprons, gum boots, long gloves, face sheilds
PPE
GPS
Field assessment
binoculars
Field assessment
Field note books and pencils
Field assessment
Plastic bags & Cable ties, 200mm
Field assessment
Nets - large throw nets & ring nets, various smal nets
Capture
sea lion nets
Capture
Noose pole
Capture
Matasorb (sorbent mats)
Capture
Wildlife Col ection tags
Capture
Sturdy transport cages (ideal y with divisions)
Transport
Stretchers – canvas, soft mesh, or sturdy board
Capture & Transport
Herding boards
Capture & Rehab
Flipper tags and applicator gun, PIT tags
ID
50ml syringes, without catheter
Stabilisation
Rol of silicone tubing
Stabilisation
Cotton buds
Stabilisation
0.9% NaCl (500ml bottle)
Stabilisation
Squeeze bottles
Stabilisation
Digital thermometer
Stabilisation
Electrolytes, powder
Stabilisation
Anaesthesia machine (or darts for large males)
Veterinary
Tergo detergent
Wash
Sturdy pools with appropriate haul out decking (not PVC fabric)
Rehab
Commercial fish grinder
Rehab
Electric heat pads
Rehab
Necropsy equipment
Necropsy
Note for items that come into physical contact with animals, two sets should be available –
one for use on clean seals and one for use on oiled seals.
49
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Key National Contacts:
Appendix 3
Name, Title
Organisation
Contacts
Dr. Louise Chilvers,
Aquatic & Threats Unit
Phone: 04 4713073
Sea lion Biologist
Department of Conservation,
Email: [email address]
Wel ington
Dr. Laura Boren,
Aquatic & Threats Unit
Mobile: 0274 455 413
Fur Seal Biologist & DOC
Department of Conservation,
Phone: 04 471 3062
Marine Mammal Advisor
Wel ington
Email:[email address]
Katja Geschke,
Wel ington Zoo
Mobile: 021 227 8304
Zoo Animal Vet (marine
Wel ington
Office: 04 381 6757
mammal experience)
Email: katja.geschke@wel ingtonzoo.com
Shaun McConkey,
NZ Sea Lion Trust,
Mobile: 021 2983697
Sea lion biologist &
Dunedin
Home: 03 4667037
President of Trust
Email: [email address]
Dr. Liz Slooten,
University of Otago, Dunedin
Mobile: 027 447 4418
Hectors dolphin biologist
Office: 03 479 7980
Email: [email address]
Dr. Steve Dawson,
University of Otago, Dunedin
Office: 03 479 7468
Hectors dolphin biologist
Email: [email address]
Dr. Chris Lalas
Dunedin, Otago
Office: 03 478 1149
Marine Biologist
Email: [email address]
Jim Fyfe,
Department of Conservation,
Office: 03 474 6946
Marine Ranger with sea lion Dunedin
Email: [email address]
handling experience
Pete McClelland
Department of Conservation,
Office: 03 211 2400
Senior Conservation Officer
Invercargil
Email: pmcclel [email address]
with sea lion handling
experience
Don Neale,
Department of Conservation,
Office: 03 756 9118
Marine Technical Support
West Coast
Email: [email address]
with fur seal handling
experience
Department of Conservation Emergency Hotline
0800 DOC HOT (0800 362 468)
50
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Euthanasia of pinnipeds during OWR
Appendix 4
Decisions regarding euthanasia should be made by the attending veterinarian in conjunction with
DOC during OWR. Considerations for animal welfare will be paramount in the decision process.
During all oiled wildlife response under the management of MNZ, no individual is to be euthanized
without the explicit direction of the attending veterinarian.
Situations when euthanasia may be appropriate include:
• Pups that are confirmed orphans
• Moribund/diseased individuals
• Individuals with serious injury which would prohibit survival in the wild
• Non-threatened species (when resources are stretched already to care for threatened
species)
• Individuals with symptoms of underlying disease
A humane death is defined as one that obtains rapid unconsciousness (in a relatively pain free
manner) followed by cardiac or respiratory arrest (Andrews et al. 1993).
The fol owing euthanasia techniques are deemed to be humane during OWR and are described in
greater detail in Greer et al 2001 – Chapter 32, CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine:
Intravenous administration of barbiturate:
This is the most common method of euthanasia employed by marine mammal veterinarians
worldwide. Pentobarbital dose rate is 60 – 200mg/kg for most species (Greer et al 2001).
Intraperitoneal administration is an option when vasculature is difficult to locate.
Inhalant anaesthetic agents:
This technique is also commonly used for smal pinnipeds, however time to death is often prolonged
in diving mammals with breath-holding abilities. Suitable agents are halothane, isoflurane,
methoxyflurane and enflurane.
Gunshot to the head:
A firearm of appropriate calibre must be selected for the task and an experienced firearm license
holder must be responsible for the discharge. The target organ for pinnipeds is the brain. The
Department of Conservation routinely use this technique for fur seals and may be available to assist
in this capacity.
Regardless of the technique, death should be verified* by noted absence of a heartbeat.
* Verification may be difficult in elephant seals. In such cases the fol owing techniques (used to
verify death in stranded cetaceans) and described by the Department of Conservation 2007 may be
helpful.
“Simultaneous observation of the following provides a good indication of death:
• complete dilation of the pupils;
• absence of palpebral and corneal reflexes;
• slack lower jaw.”
51
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Key reference:
Andrews, E.J., Bennett, B.T. and J.D. Clark. 1993. Report of the AVMA panel on euthanasia. Journal of
the American Veterinary Medical Association 202: 230 - 247
Greer, L.L., Whaley, J and T.K. Rowles. 2001. Marine Mammal Anaesthesia.
In, Dierauf & Gulland
(eds) CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second Edition. Chapter 32
Department of Conservation, 2007. Marine Mammal Stranding Standard Operating Procedure.
Unpublished Report. Department of Conservation, Wellington, NZ.
52
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Pinniped Necropsy Protocol:
Appendix 5
Excerpt from:
Roe, W. D. 2008. Identification of Marine Mammals Captured in New Zealand Fisheries: Methods
Used. Unpublished report. New Zealand Wildlife Health Centre, Massey University.
Note that this protocol was developed for fisheries by-catch circumstances. Some aspects of the
protocol may be adapted by the attending pathologist during oil spill response as necessary. The
standard data sheet for pinniped necropsies is provided at the end of this appendix.
Prior to necropsy specimens are removed from the freezer and thawed at room temperature.
The species and sex are determined based on external morphology and expertise of the examiner.
Pathological examination and sampling is conducted according to a standard protocol. The
procedure includes recording the body weight (kg), external measurements (cm), and examination
of the carcass for external lesions indicative of trauma, for example lacerations, scars, fractures etc.
Significant lesions are documented on a body map diagram. The body is opened along the ventral
midline and the blubber depth (mm) is recorded over the mid-sternum. A small skin sample is
collected from the pectoral or pelvic flipper and stored in 70% ethanol for genetic analysis. The skin
and hair are removed, and any bruising is noted on a body map diagram, with an assessment of the
amount of the body involved, location, and depth of the bruising. Blubber samples may be taken
from the dorsal aspect of the left pelvis for fatty acid analysis (used in diet determination), and
stored at –80°C for further research. In females the mammary gland is sliced at 5-10mm intervals
along its length to evaluate the presence of milk, and samples col ected into 10% buffered formalin
for microscopic analysis.
The body cavity is then opened. Abdominal fluid is removed and measured. Samples are col ected
from lung, liver, spleen and kidneys and frozen at -20oC. These tissues can be used for virology,
bacteriology and toxicology at a later date. The tongue, trachea and oesophagus are dissected out
and removed along with the lungs. The trachea and lower airways are opened and examined, and
multiple incisions made into the lung tissue. The heart is opened and al chambers and walls
examined. The stomach is removed, tied off, and either examined immediately or frozen at –20°C
until the contents can be examined at a later date. The liver is assessed for tears or ruptures, and for
evidence of disease. The hepatic sinus and gall bladder are examined, as are the spleen, pancreas
and adrenals. Samples of each of these tissues are saved in formalin. In females the reproductive
tract is dissected out and the uterine horns are opened and examined for signs of pregnancy. A
sample of uterus is collected into formalin The length, width and depth of the ovaries are measured
(mm) using Vernier calipers, and the ovaries weighed (g) using a Mettler PM 4800 Delta Range
balance. The ovaries are examined grossly for the presence of corpora lutea (CL) and corpora
albicantia (CA). Both ovaries are saved in formalin. In males the testes are removed, weighed,
measured and a sample saved in formalin. Kidney capsules are removed and the kidney examined
for evidence of trauma or disease.
53
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
The head is careful y skinned and examined for bruising and fractures. The mandible is dissected out,
tagged, and frozen at -20oC for future ageing by cementum and or dentine analysis of teeth. The
brain is then removed by sectioning the head with a band-saw and careful y breaking down
attachments between the skul and brain tissue. The surface of the brain is examined grossly and the
brain is then fixed in 10% buffered formalin for at least two weeks. Once adequately fixed, the brain
is removed and again examined grossly for detection of bruising (contusions).
Pathology
Traumatic lesions are assessed in three categories: body wall subcutaneous/skeletal, cranial, and
abdominal cavity. The severity of trauma in each category is then assessed as follows.
• subcutaneous/skeletal trauma is classified as mild, moderate, or severe based on the
amount of tissue involved, the depth of bruising, and the presence or absence of ante-
mortem skeletal fractures
• cranial trauma is assessed as mild, moderate, or severe based on extent of tissue involved
and depth of bruising. If haemorrhage within the skul or in the brain tissue is present,
trauma is classified as severe.
• body cavity haemorrhage is classified as moderate or severe based on the volume of blood
present in these cavities and the specific organs involved (e.g. liver, spleen, large vessels).
An assessment of the
overall severity of trauma (mild, moderate or severe) is then given based on
the assumed combined effect of trauma in each category.
Stomach content analysis
The stomachs are weighed (kg), opened using scissors and all material washed into a 1 mm sieve.
The stomach is then re-weighed to al ow the weight of the stomach contents to be determined.
Large, relatively undigested material is removed at this stage. Smaller, more digested material is
gradually sorted using a black-bottomed tray. Otoliths are clearly visible against this background,
and as they are denser than most of the other material, they sink to the bottom of the tray. Squid
beaks, eye lenses, fish bones, and other relevant food material are also collected. Lesions in the
gastric mucosa are described and quantified. Otoliths, bones, and squid beaks are stored in 70%
alcohol for more detailed analysis of diet at or immediately before the time of death.
Histological (microscopic) analysis
Tissues are fixed in 10% buffered formalin before preparation for microscopic analysis. Briefly, this
involves trimming tissues into 2mm blocks, then embedding them in paraffin for routine
histochemical processing. Processed tissues are sectioned at 5µm intervals using a microtome,
mounted on glass slides and stained with haematoxylin and eosin. Slides are examined
microscopically at 40 to 100x magnification.
Testes are examined microscopically to assess the maturity of the seminiferous tubule epithelium
and evaluate the presence of spermatozoa. The microscopic characteristics of the testicular and
epididymal tissue, in conjunction with the combined weight of the testes (summed testicular mass)
of an individual male enable its classification as sexually mature (with active or inactive spermatozoa
production as appropriate), immature, or pubertal.
54
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Ovaries are examined to confirm the presence of corpora lutea or albicantia as assessed grossly. The
uterine horns are also examined to assess the maturity of the reproductive tract, and mammary
tissue is assessed for the presence of milk and for evidence of any inflammatory response (mastitis)
or disease.
Sections of lung are examined to determine the presence or absence of pulmonary congestion and
oedema (excessive blood in vessels and excessive fluid in the airways) as these are indicators of
drowning.
Sections of trachea, oesophagus, spleen, adrenal, liver, heart, diaphragm and kidney, as well as the
whole brain, are saved for histological analysis as indicated. It should be noted that in frozen tissues
accurate histological interpretation of lesions can be markedly compromised.
55
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
NON BYCATCH PINNIPED DATA SHEET
MUCIC # __________
Lab Case ID (PM #) _______________ Tag # ____________
Date found: _____________ Necropsy Date: ____________
Location: _______________________________________
DOC Contact: ____________________________________________
Species: _____________________
Sex: ________
Age: Juv., SubAd., Ad.
Weight: _____kg
Std. Length: _____m
Girth: _____m
Blubber: ____mm
Carcass state: fresh / mild / moderate / severe decomposition
Fresh: chilled / frozen
HISTORY
ARRIVAL DETAILS
GROSS PATHOLOGY
External Examination (see diagram and eyes, ears, flippers)
Internal Examination (Blubber, subcutis, mammary gland, fascia, muscle, skeleton)
56
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Alimentary system (mouth, teeth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intest.,
liver, gall bladder, pancreas, peritoneum, lymph nodes).
Respiratory system (nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, pleura, lymph nodes)
Cardiovascular (Heart, pericardium, great vessels)
Urogenital system (kidneys, bladder, ureters, urethra, gonads, vagina/penis/prepuce)
Lymphatic (thymus, spleen, lymph nodes)
Endocrine (thyroids, adrenals)
57
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Nervous system (only if head trauma).
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Female:
Ovaries: Weight Dimensions (LxWxD) CA( #, Size) CL (size) Uterine Horn Diameter
Right:
Left:
Pregnant: Yes / No
Milk: Yes / No
Foetus: Length (crown-rump, mm):______ Weight: _______kg. Sex: M / F
Male:
Testes: Weight + epidid (kg) Weight – epidid (kg) Length x diameter (mm).
Left.
Right
STOMACH
Weight with contents:______kg
Weight empty: ___________kg
Contents: _______________kg
Composition: fish, squid, other inverts, squid beaks, otoliths, rocks.
Parasites collected: Yes / No
Ulcers: Number ________ Size range: ______________
Other lesions: ____________________________________
IMAGES: Yes / No
58
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
SAMPLE CHECKLIST
Discipline
Tissue
Storage
Check
Histopathology
Lung, Heart, Liver, Spleen,
Formalin
Thyroid, Trachea, Kidney,
Diaphragm, Adrenals, CNS,
Any lesion, Gonads, Mammary
gland, foetus.
Toxicology/Diet
Blubber
Freezer (300g
whirlpack)
Age determination
Jaw
Label - bucket
Museum
Skull
Big freezer
Brucella
Lung, Liver, Spleen, Lymph
Brucella culture
Nodes, Uterus, Testis,
medium
Mammary Gland, Foetus,
Kidney
PBS for PCR testing
Parasitology
Intestine / stomach / lung
Frozen -80/ alcohol
Bacteriology
Abdo pool/thoracic pool
pottle
Diet
Gut contents / blubber
Fish bin / -80 freezer
Other
studies/samples:
DISPOSAL/STORAGE DETAILS
DIAGNOSIS
Examiner(s): (Please sign)
59
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
60
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
61
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Post-release monitoring techniques:
Appendix 6
Post release monitoring is highly recommended for pinnipeds following oiled wildlife response. Such
monitoring allows managers and researchers alike to gauge how successful their rehabilitation
efforts were, and may help to justify decisions regarding rehabilitation in the future. Note that in
New Zealand it is debateable as to whether post-release monitoring costs are considered
“reasonable” costs as far as the spillers’ legal obligation for cleaning-up the spil . This means that
these costs are unlikely to be recoverable from the spiller, hence external funding should be
obtained for this monitoring.
There are few published post-release studies on oiled pinnipeds, however Lander et al 2002 found
that harbour seal pups that had been rehabilitated for a number of reasons unrelated to oiling
demonstrated similar behaviour, movement, and survival rates as wild pups. As it may take some
time for rehabilitated individuals to adapt to the wild, Harvey (1991) recommended that post-
release monitoring of seals should extend for at least 3 – 4 months after their release.
A structured post-release monitoring programme should include sufficient treated and non treated
individuals to allow the investigation of potential statistical differences. Ideally such a programme
would include representative individuals of both sexes, ages and reproductive states. Although the
monitoring method may vary, it is important to carefully consider the amount of monitoring that will
be required to achieve the target outcomes. Biological criteria that could be monitored vary
considerably depending on what you are interested in but could include short- and long-term
survival, reproductive rates, growth rates, foraging activity and area, home range, and attendance
patterns. Al could be excellent proxies for post-release monitoring but the range and nature of
these wil need to be determined by species, situation, and funding availability.
Historically flipper tags have been a main-stay for identification and subsequent monitoring of
pinnipeds in New Zealand. Flipper tags rely on re-sight data to be collected after tag application.
At the very minimum we recommend that flipper tags and Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT)
tags be applied to rehabilitated oiled seals and sea lions to facilitate future monitoring (see
Appendix 12). The collection of a small genetic sample via ‘toe clipping’ is also recommended for
addition to the national marine mammal tissue bank which is managed by DOC.
Remote monitoring technologies are rapidly evolving, leading to ever increasing sophistication as to
data that can potentially be collected from wildlife (see Lander et al 2001 for more detail). Potential
remote techniques that are available for post release monitoring are summarised below. Costs may
dictate that transmitting tags are applied to only a subset of individuals:
• Radio tagging:
typically VHF
some transmitters incorporate mortality, temperature and activity sensors
useful to also tag a wild control group
reasonably inexpensive
62
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
• Time depth recorders:
These can be archival - tag must be recovered to col ect data or satellite-linked
In addition to time and depth they can be programmed to col ect numerous other
parameters (water temp, position, heart rate, body temperature etc)
• Satellite tagging:
Relatively expensive
Data transmitted via satellite to the user, hence no tag recovery needed
Battery size affects tag size and duration of transmission
May not be available at short notice - usually require a reasonable set-up time,
application approval from Argos, custom built tags etc
Location information accuracy varies, hence best suited to research where spatial
accuracy is not critical to the nearest metre. GPS linked are now available but are
more expensive.
Louise Chilvers at DOC routinely uses these on NZ sea lions; she may be able to help
with making these tags available at short notice.
• GPS tagging (transmitting and archival tags):
Facilitates more accurate location data than satellite tagging.
Local suppliers of wildlife tracking equipment:
Sirtrack – Wildlife Tracking Solutions:
Private Bag 1403, Goddard Lane
Havelock North 4157, New Zealand
Phone +64 6 877 7736
Fax +64 6 877 5422
Freephone within New Zealand - 0800 SIRTRACK (0800 747 872)
Website:
http://www.sirtrack.com/
The consideration of animal welfare is crucial before deployment of tracking instruments on
pinnipeds. Any device attached to the body of a seal or sea lion will undoubtedly affect the
hydrodynamics of an individual, hence will have the potential to reduce foraging success. Animal
welfare considerations are particularly important for rehabilitated animals which may have
reduced fitness in the wild immediately after release.
A DOC permit will also be required to mark any individual or attach any tracking equipment.
DOC can however undertake such tasks without a permit for management purposes. It may
therefore be beneficial for DOC to lead the post-release monitoring programme.
References:
Lander, M.E., Westgate, A.J., Bonde, R.K. and M.J. Murray. 2001. Tagging and Tracking.
In: CRC
Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second Edition, L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gul and (eds.), CRC
Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. Pp. 851 – 880.
Lander, M.E., Harvey, J.T., Hanni, K.D. and L.E. Morgan. 2002. Behaviour, movements, and apparent
survival of rehabilitated and free-ranging harbour seal pups. Journal of Wildlife Management 66 (1):
19 – 28
Harvey, J.T. 1991. Survival and behaviour of previously captive harbour seals after release into the
wild.
In J.E. Reynolds and D.K Odell (eds.); Marine Mammal Strandings in the United States. NMFS
Technical Report 98.
63
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Pinniped capture techniques:
Appendix 7
Capture should occur under the direction of an experienced handler whenever possible. The people
listed below may be able to assist with the capture itself or provide advice on aspects such as: best
technique, appropriate capture gear for different scenarios, capture logistics, etc.
The following people are familiar with standard research capture techniques for
fur seals (key
contact is underlined):
• Dr. Laura Boren, DOC National Office
• Mike Morrissey, DOC Kaikoura
• Don Neale, DOC West Coast
•
The following people are familiar with standard research capture techniques for
sea lions (key
contact is underlined):
• Dr. Louise Chilvers, DOC National Office
• Jim Fyfe, DOC Dunedin
• Jacinda Amey, Southland NZ
• Amelie Auge, University of Otago
• Kerri Morgan, Massey University
• Shaun McConkey, NZ Sea Lion Trust
• Nathan McNally, University of Otago
• Helen McConnell, Massey University
• Dr. Chris Lalas, Dunedin NZ
• Dr. Simon Childerhouse, AAD, Tasmania
Capture techniques are not described here, as capture attempts by inexperienced teams can be
dangerous for both the field team and the animal. We therefore strongly recommend that advice
be taken directly from the personnel listed above regarding capture techniques and equipment.
General points to consider when planning the capture of pinnipeds:
Before you leave the car park:
• Good preparation is essential
• Human safety must be prioritised, followed closely by animal welfare
• Ensure trained/experienced personnel are used whenever possible
• Appoint a team leader
• Prepare a communication strategy and undertake a thorough briefing with your fellow
capture personnel
• Be aware of both tide and weather conditions
• Seek local advice (access points, coastal geography etc) when working in unfamiliar locations
• Ensure appropriate personal protection equipment (PPE) is provided to al personnel
• Ensure appropriate equipment is available, and that users are familiar with it.
• Be familiar with the species that you are likely to encounter and know their natural history
64
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Once you have identified a target animal:
• Assess each target animal on a case by case basis > assess the situation from a distance >
develop a game plan > also develop a back-up plan in the event that the first plan is not
successful.
• Have pre-defined roles within the capture team
• Inform bystanders of your intentions if necessary
• Identify possible escape routes of the target animal
• Avoid all potential stressors to the animal both before and after capture: noise, excessive
movement, smell
Useful Tactics:
• Move slowly as you approach
• Avoid eye contact as you approach.
• Once you have decided to ‘strike’ DO NOT HESITATE.
• If possible have two nets ready (one each amongst two ‘catchers’, the second can be used if
the first one misses.
• Use camouflage PPE if appropriate to increase the success of capture
• Use ‘single image’ technique – one person ‘hides’ in the silhouette of the other
• Zigzag search technique for a single person
• Keep net low until you intend to ‘strike’
• Identify and aim to block possible escape routes of the animal
• Use the wind to mask noise – approach on the leeward side of an animal
65
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Transport of pinnipeds during OWR:
Appendix 8
The capture and transport process will be very stressful for the animal, and all practical steps should
be taken to ensure transport is as efficient as possible to minimise the increased stress associated
with close confinement.
Basic principles:
• The safety of both of the animal and the handlers needs to be ensured at al times.
• Adequate ventilation must be provided to all oiled wildlife during transportation
• Adequate shelter from wind/rain must be provided as necessary
• Mothers and pups kept together but consider putting the pup in a separate animal carrier so
the mother doesn’t squash the pup.
Important Safety Note:
The vehicle driver and the oiled animal/s must not share the same airspace during transport to
ensure that the driver is not subject to dangerous volatile fumes.
Transport vehicles: Appropriate vehicles will need to be selected by the Wildlife Operations
Manager at the time of a spill. The following vehicles
may be suitable for the transport of oiled
pinnipeds (the suitability of each option below will vary depending on the circumstances):
• Utes with cages*
• Utes with canopies
• Caged Stock trailers* and suitable towing vehicles
• Small trucks with canopies
• Small trucks with caged enclosure*
• Horse floats/trucks
• Appropriately sized boats
• Helicopters (from remote sites)
*Note, if unrestrained pinnipeds are to be transported in caged vehicles/trailers the cage must be
covered and solidly lined to prevent pinnipeds from climbing out of the cage during transport.
Transport enclosures: Appropriate enclosure sizes will vary with the species, age and number of
animals requiring transport.
• In some instances the vehicle or trailer structure and the transport enclosure will be one and
the same. For example a horse float (single or double) may be suitable for transporting a
single large unrestrained pinniped.
• In other instances the animal/s will need to be restrained in an enclosure before being
placed in the vehicle. For example a number of juvenile fur seals could be transported
together in the back of a well ventilated canopied ute if they are placed in individual plastic
animal carriers before being loaded into the vehicle.
66
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Transport times: Transport times should be minimised. If animals need to be transported for more
than 2 hours they may require a stabilisation stop en-route during which fluid therapy can be
administered. Ideal y the time between capture and arrival at the treatment facility should be
minimised to negate the need for field stabilisation or stabilisation stops during transport.
67
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Housing for pinnipeds in captivity during OWR:
Appendix 9
General housing considerations (adapted from OWCN 2004):
• Ventilation (10 – 15 air exchanges per hour)
• Temperature control
• Water filtration (separate systems for each enclosure)
• Safe and escape proof
• Minimise visual stressors
The fol owing enclosures may be needed depending on the response strategy chosen and the
species in question:
Fur seals –
A. Temporary in-situ holding pens for pups
B. Dry holding enclosures for oiled seals during pre-wash stabilisation
C. Dry holding enclosures for clean seals during post-wash stabilisation
D. Conditioning enclosures with pools and haul-out space for waterproofing
Sea lions –
E. Temporary in-situ holding pens for pups and/or adults
F. Dry holding enclosures for oiled sea lions during pre-wash stabilisation
G. Dry holding enclosures for clean sea lions during post-wash stabilisation
These enclosure types can be categorised as ‘Dry holding pens’ (A, B, C, E, F, G) or ‘Conditioning pens
with pools’ (C) and are discussed further below.
Dry holding pens –
• These are intended for short-term use only (maximum 5 days).
• They may be used for 1) pre-emptive capture, 2) the holding of oiled animals prior to
washing, and 3) the holding of clean animals during post-wash stabilisation.
• The construction of al dry pens need to be sturdy to ensure animals wil not injure
themselves, however in-situ pens for pups wil not need to be as substantial as those
required for adults.
• Care must be taken to select a fencing option that minimises likelihood of injury – for
instance regarding temporary fencing supplies - diamond mesh is preferable over vertical
metal bars which may trap and injure flippers.
• Various construction materials, as identified below, may be suitable for dry holding pens.
Some of these products can be routinely supplied by temporary fence hire businesses (see
below for contacts):
o Water filled plastic barriers (good for pups: typical y used during road construction)
o Temporary wire fencing (diamond mesh), may need additional supports for
strengthening if they are to be used for adult pinnipeds. Alternatively lighter gauge
plastic coated wire mesh may be acceptable for the restraint of pups.
68
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
o Wood is not advisable for construction of pinniped enclosures due to hygiene
concerns (inability to disinfect it thoroughly).
• It would be beneficial if all pens can be sub-divided into halves for cleaning purposes. This
would allow handlers to force animals into one end of an enclosure while the other half can
be safely cleaned and vice versa.
• There are two options for managing oily waste in pens set up on natural substrate (grass,
sand, gravel etc):
1) A ground cover can be provided which wil prevent the substrate from becoming
contaminated. A tarpaulin over which sorbent pads and then tube matting has been
laid is likely to be sufficient for this purpose, or
2) Alternatively enclosures can be repositioned frequently after which the natural
substrate is removed as hazardous waste.
Note that even clean animals may stil be excreting oily waste as they metabolise
and eliminate hydrocarbons from their systems; hence consideration of this waste
needs to be given for both oiled and recently cleaned animals.
• A ground covering may not be necessary on a concrete substrate if the area is well drained
and can be hosed frequently to remove faeces etc into a waste water oil interceptor system.
However, tube matting may be necessary in some instances to prevent abrasions on the
ventral surface of the flippers if the concrete is not smoothly finished.
Conditioning enclosures for waterproofing (juvenile and adult fur seals only) –
• These are intended for medium-term use only (7 - 10 days).
• They are used for housing fur seals after they have been washed while they regain their
waterproofing.
• Pools are required during this period both for the restoration of waterproofing (through
encouraged grooming) and the stimulation of feeding behaviours in captivity.
• Construction must be sturdy and secure to ensure animals wil not injure themselves.
• A concrete base will be ideal for these enclosures. As these enclosures wil be ‘wet’ zones,
grassed areas will not provide a suitable substrate.
• Moulded fibreglass pools with slatted haul out decking surrounding them and a secure
exterior fence are perhaps the most ideal temporary arrangements.
• Alternatively, and possibly more appropriate for young pups, would be the use of plastic
pallets to provide raised haul-out platforms in a small enclosure with a small adjoining pool
(fish bin of water). A series of such enclosures could be erected from a bare concrete pad
using holes drilled into the concrete into which metal pipes could be set to mark the corners
of each enclosure (c. 1 x 2 m). Plastic coated wire mesh could then be strung between the
poles and tied down to the concrete at the base.
• In an ideal setting, gates in the exterior fence would be half doors (i.e. the top half can be
operated separately from the bottom half), and would swing in both directions.
• The large plastic bins used to transport live fish (approx. dimensions = 1.3 x 1.3 x 1.3m) can
be successful y adapted for smal pinnipeds, e.g. young fur seals. Haul out decking needs to
be constructed around the pool. These bins were used successful y for otters during the
Exxon Valdez spill.
69
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
• PVC fabric/vinyl pools are unsuitable for all marine mammals due to lack of strength.
• Controlling bacteria in pools is often a challenge. Chlorine can be used for this, but it will
damage pelage if left un-neutralised. SeaWorld San Diego use chlorine followed by ‘drip
neutralisation’ for their fur seal enclosures.
• Lander et al 2002, who conducted a post-release monitoring study on rehabilitated animals
from The Marine Mammal Centre, Sausalito, California noted “During tagging procedures,
we noticed rehabilitated pups had brittle pelage compared with that of wild pups, which
might have been a result of their exposure to bleach, chlorine, ozone, or the freshwater
system at TMMC”.
• Softened freshwater in pools is ideal and will allow waterproofing to be regained in the
shortest period (D. Jessup). In otters, Jessup 2009 found that salt water pools during
conditioning elicited a marked metabolic response leading to physiological stress on the
animal and requiring increased food intake (D. Jessup 2009)
• For information on water quality issues see:
Arkush, K.D. 2001. Water Quality.
In: CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second
Edition, L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland (eds.), CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. Pp. 779 -
790
• Bright/reflective pool colours should be avoided
General considerations:
• Shade should always be available to captive pinnipeds.
• Sharp corners etc should be avoided during al enclosure construction as pinnipeds are
prone to eye injuries when care is not taken in this respect.
• When making decisions on captive housing of pinnipeds, attention should be given to the
natural habitat that the animal is accustomed to and the behavioural traits of the species.
For instance:
o Fur seals and sea lions are highly mobile on land over varying terrain; hence raised
pools with ramps should cause few problems for this species. True seals on the other
hand, such as elephant seals and leopard seals, are less mobile ashore and benefit
from sunken pools with graduated entry/exit points.
o Fur seals and sea lions will sometimes attempt to climb out of mesh enclosures
(especially where two mesh walls meet in a corner). Corner covers may be necessary
to prevent escapes.
Examples of conditioning enclosures – TMMC, Sausalito, California
• Total enclosure dimension = approx. 8 x 6m
• Centrally placed graduated concrete pool. Deep portion of pool is 2 x 2m large and 1.2m
deep, with a shallow periphery measuring c. 5 x 5m and c. 0.5m deep).
• This enclosure easily houses 3 x adult female California sea lions.
• Salted fresh water was used in pools (our preference would be for softened freshwater).
• Inner corridors between enclosures act as traps and can be used to isolate individuals away
from water if necessary.
• All surfaces concrete
70
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
• Exterior fence for each enclosure consists of 1m high concrete wall with diamond wire mesh
fencing above (total height = approx. 3 m).
References:
Arkush, K.D. 2001. Water Quality.
In: CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second Edition,
L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland (eds.), CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. Pp. 779 -790 Oiled Wildlife Care Network. 2004. Protocols for the care of oil affected mammals. M. Haulena, S.
Johnson, J. Mazet, P.Yochem & M. Ziccardi eds. Davis, CA: University of California, Wildlife Health
Center.
USEFUL LOGISTICAL CONTACTS
Temporary Fencing Hire:
• Fahey Fence Hire, Christchurch
Phone: 03 343 9960, [mobile number] 766
http://www.faheyfencehire.co.nz/
• Hampden Fence hire, Auckland
Phone: 0800 426 002 Phone: 09 274 7557
http://www.hampden.co.nz/,
• 0508 TEMP FENCE, Auckland
Phone:
0508 836 733, Fax: 09 426 5849, Email
: [email address], http://www.0508tempfence.co.nz/home/
• AdFence, Auckland
Phone: 0800
89 49 29, email:
[email address],
• Temporary Fence, Tauranga
Phone: 0274 945 788, Fax: 07 552 4934,
Moulded Fibreglass Swimming Pools:
• Bluewater pools, Auckland
Phone 09 441 6281
http://www.bluewaterpools.co.nz/
• Splashtime pools, Nelson
Phone 03 547 3411, 0274 446 188
www.splashtimepools.co.nz
• Laguna pools, Tauranga
Phone 0800 524 862, 07 850 6216, 021 222 5451,
www.lagunapools.co.nz
• Barrier Reef Pools, agents all over NZ (see website)
www.barrierreefpools.co.nz
71
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Pinniped husbandry in captive facilities:
Appendix 10
Quarantine protocols (adapted from OWCN 2004):
• Always handle the healthiest animals first during treatment rounds
• Disinfectant foot baths should be placed outside each enclosure
• Disinfecting or changing PPE between individual animals
• Separate cleaning/feeding equipment should be designated for different enclosures/areas
• Movement of animals (& personnel as practicable) should be minimised between enclosures
Captive Complications:
• Minor ventral surface flipper abrasions are sometimes seen in captive pinnipeds. However,
these are general y not serious. Most species are well adapted to firm surfaces in the wild;
hence clean smooth concrete surfaces should pose few problems for pinnipeds in captivity.
• Eye problems tend to be symptomatic of water quality issues. Bright/reflective pool colours
and a lack of shade are also contributing factors. Residual chlorine and ozone have been
linked to eye lesions which are then readily exacerbated by opportunistic bacterial infections
(conjunctivitis, keratitis – see Thornton et al 1998). Saline washes are recommended to
mitigate eye problems in pinnipeds (Gul and et al. 2001 – Chapter 41).
• The shorter the duration of captivity, the lower the chances of individuals developing
secondary captive complications. Hence, fol owing OWR treatment, individuals should be
released to the wild as quickly as possible.
Species requirements:
• When making decisions on captive husbandry of pinnipeds, attention should be given to the
natural habitat that the animal is accustomed to and the behavioural traits of the species.
For instance:
o Due to their agility on land and inquisitive nature captive fur seals and sea lions may
benefit from environmental enrichment, e.g. music, climbing platforms & novel
objects.
Social grouping in captivity:
• During OWR only individuals of the same species should be housed together, and even then
the following factors should be considered:
• Mother pup bonds should be maintained as a matter of priority
• Similar age-classes should be housed together
• During the breeding season adult males wil probably need to be housed separately to avoid
aggression associated with sexual competition.
References
Gul and, F.M.D., Haulena, M. and L.A. Dierauf. 2001. Seals and sea lions.
In L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland
(eds): CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second Edition, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.
Chapter 41.
Oiled Wildlife Care Network. 2004. Protocols for the care of oil affected mammals. M. Haulena, S. Johnson, J.
Mazet, P.Yochem & M. Ziccardi eds. Davis, CA: University of California, Wildlife Health Center.
Thornton, S.M., Nolan, S. and Gul and, F.M.D. 1998. Bacterial isolates from California sea lions (
Zalophus
californianus), harbour seals (
Phoca vitulina) and northern elephant seals (
Mirounga angustirostris) admitted
to a rehabilitation center along the central California coast, 1994 – 1995. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine
29: 171 - 176
72
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Nutrition of Captive Pinnipeds
Appendix 11
Excellent general information on nutrition and nutritional disorders can be located in:
Worthy, G.A. 2001. Nutition and energetics.
In: CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second
Edition, L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland (eds.), CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. Pp. 791 – 827.
PUP NUTRITION
Hand rearing of orphan pups should never be the intention of oiled wildlife response. However it
makes sense to include some basic information on pup nutrition in this SOP in the event that we are
faced with orphaned pinniped pups. This information may be beneficial in the interests of animal
welfare while decisions are being made by all interested parties (On-Scene-Commander, DOC, Iwi,
Massey University) with regards to the appropriate course of action.
Note – that ‘imprinting’ of pups onto humans during periods of captive care is possible but appears
rare (e.g. Lynn et al 2009). This appears to be more of a problem with sea lions as opposed to fur
seals (M. Bressler pers. comm.).
The appropriate nutrition of pups is paramount to their development and survival. The most
comprehensive information on suitable maternal milk substitutes for pinnipeds is:
Townsend, F.I. and L.J. Gage. 2001. Hand rearing and artificial milk formulas. In: CRC Handbook of
Marine Mammal Medicine, Second Edition, L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland (eds.), CRC Press LLC,
Boca Raton, Florida. Pp. 829 – 850.
Note that recipes from this chapter have been largely reproduced in Appendix 12 of OWCN 2004.
It is important to remember that these formulas were not developed specifically for NZ species;
hence they may need revision to some extent. The majority of these formula’s rely on a product
called ‘Zoologic Milk Matrix 30/55 (Pet Ag Inc., Hampshire, IL)’, a similar product available through
Michele Thompson, IVABS is ‘Wombaroo sea lion milk replacer’. During a spill an urgent delivery
could be facilitated for this product through Michele (phone: 06 356 9099 extn 7440)
New Zealand sea lions:
Of most relevance to NZ sea lion pup nutrition is the following diet information which is summarised
from an unpublished report by Monica Bando entitled “Hand-rearing of an orphaned New Zealand
sea lion pup, January – April 2005”. This report was prepared in relation to an orphaned sea lion pup
which was cared for successfully by Massey University and Wellington Zoo from age 18 to 73 days of
age. A full copy of this report is help in the NZWHC, OWR library
and can be requested by email:
[email address] INITIAL DIET:
The feed formula described in table 1 was derived by modifying a California sea lion (Zalophus
californianus) neonate diet recipe from Marineland, Napier as wel as a California sea lion diet from
73
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
the CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine: Health, Disease, and Rehabilitation (Dierauf and
Gulland 2001).
These quantities yielded approximately one day’s intake. The pup was tube-fed 300mL of warm (30-
35°
C) fish formula three times a day. Weight gain on this feeding regime averaged ~150g/day.
Ingredients
Fat
Prot
Fat
Prot
Total
Fat % Prot %
(g)
(g)
(kcal)
(kcal)
kcal
ME
ME
300 g salmon
24
60
204
210
414
49
51
30 mL canola oil
30
0
255
0
255
100
0
30 mL cream
11.5
0.6
98
2
100
98
2
375 mL lactose- free milk
15
12
128
4
132
97
3
2 mazuri vitamin tablets
5 mL calcium sandoz syrup
~150 mL electrolyte solution
Total
80.5
72.6
685
216
901
76
24
Table 1. Estimation of macro-nutrient composition of formula fed to pup.
REPLACEMENT DIET:
For convenience, the pups diet was gradually switched to “Wombaroo Sea Lion Milk Replacer.” The
Wombaroo diet requires mixing the powder in cream, a 300 g powder : 700 ml cream ratio. 1.5L of
this formula was fed per day.
Further analysis suggested that the fish formula diet better approximated the milk composition of
New Zealand sea lions than the Wombaroo formula.
New Zealand fur seals:
Marineland NZ has successfully raised NZ fur seal pups in the past. If fur seal pups are oiled during a
spill they should be contacted early on in the response for their milk formula recipe.
Foraging training strategies
Foraging training strategies may need to be considered in that unlikely case that pups are help long-
term. There is no published information on how fur seals learn to forage. However pups reared at
TMMC and at SeaWorld San Diego are provided sequential nutrition after they have been admitted
to captivity as follows:
Electrolytes > formula > fish mash > whole dead fish in pool (they often play with it first then
once they start chewing on it realise that it is food and will swallow whole dead fish from
this point on) > live fish in pool if necessary (note this is illegal in NZ, without an ethics
exemption). At TMMC pups are fed 10% of their body weight over each 24 hour period in
captivity.
74
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
ADULT NUTRITION:
Access to pools of a reasonable depth (see Appendix 8) is needed to stimulate foraging of captive
adult pinnipeds. Internationally, captive adults are typically fed good quality small – medium sized
dead fish (e.g. herring 10 – 20 cm length), which is thrown into the pool. Overseas examples suggest
that most adults wil feed using this technique, and for those that won’t, live fish are fed to stimulate
feeding (note this is illegal in NZ, without an ethics exemption).
If multiple animals share an enclosure, it is recommended that during feeding someone is appointed
to the role of simply monitoring individual intake to make sure all animals get enough food. In
general, captive rehabilitating pinnipeds should be fed frequent, small, calorie rich meals.
If adult fur seals only have access to freshwater pools they should be provided with an oral salt
supplement fol owing Gul and et al 2001:
• Sodium chloride, 3g/kg fish
• Thiamine, 25–35mg/kg fish
• Vitamin E, 100 IU/kg fish
References:
Lynn, B. L., C. Reichmuth, R. J. Schusterman, and F. M. D. Gul and. 2010. Filial imprinting in a Steller
sea lion (
Eumetopias jubatus). Aquatic Mammals 36(1):79-83.
L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland (eds): 2001. CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second
Edition, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida.
•
Townsend, F.I. and L.J. Gage. Chapter 37. Hand rearing and artificial milk formulas.
•
Worthy, G.A.J. Chapter 36. Nutrition and energetics.
•
Gulland, F.M.D., Haulena, M. and L.A. Dierauf. Chapter 41. Seals and sea lions
Oiled Wildlife Care Network. 2004. Protocols for the care of oil affected mammals. M. Haulena, S.
Johnson, J. Mazet, P. Yochem & M. Ziccardi eds. Davis, CA: University of California, Wildlife Health
Center.
75
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Pinniped handling techniques for young animals
Appendix 12
These guidelines are intended for the following age-classes:
• New Zealand fur seal 0 – 2 years
• New Zealand sea lion 0 – 1 year
Key messages:
Maintain control of the jaw at all times when handling seal pups
Allow flexibility in your approach to handling seals to suit individual needs
and different scenarios
Don’t turn your back on any captive seal while inside it’s enclosure
Only trained people to handle pinnipeds during OWR
Al those handling pinnipeds should be supervised by someone with
experience in this field.
General points –
• Pinniped pups wil readily bite when stressed in both the wild and captive settings – care
must be taken to ensure handler safety
• It is important that a degree of flexibility in is maintained with regard to these guidelines -
the success of techniques described here wil vary between individuals and through time. If a
technique is clearly not working it is important to change tact and try something different.
• Pinniped pups are extremely mobile – especially in water
• Because of their agility in water, no captures of pinnipeds in rehabilitation pools should be
attempted, capture attempts should occur only in dry areas of the enclosure to reduce stress
to the animal during the capture process and increase capture success.
• Herding boards/shields are useful to allow handlers to safely approach captive pinnipeds. A
solid wooden board with a handle on the back or a small wire mesh ‘gate’ can be used for
this purpose.
• Avoid startling sleeping pinnipeds as they often are aggressive if they are not given a few
minutes to wake-up.
• If as a handler you are confronted by an aggressive captive pinniped, you should back away
from the individual and adopt a ‘neutral’ attitude and stance which may help to diffuse
aggression.
• Control pectoral and hind flippers during pinniped restraint as the animal can gain leverage
to escape from both front and hind flippers.
• Pinnipeds can be moved over short distances within their enclosures using a ‘wheelbarrow’
style of approach, whereby the handlers holds the hind flippers and directs the head to the
intended location to which the animal walks on its pectoral flippers.
• During the captive period animals will become more familiar with handling procedures,
feeding systems etc through time, allowing handlers to modify their approach as
appropriate.
• During tube feeding the handler is recommended to use one hand to hold the lower jaw and
other hand to hold the upper jaw from behind the canines. A second person wil be
necessary to insert the feeding tube and administer food/fluids.
76
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Capture techniques:
1. Herding boards can be used to restrict individual seals into a corner of their enclosure
2. A towel can then be thrown over the head of the animal
3. The primary handler can then approach and catch the seal by either:
Pinning it behind the head with a hand or a ‘squash pole’ before straddling the animal
and restraining it’s flippers against its body with their knees (a second person may be
needed to hold the body securely in some circumstances), or
Al owing the animal to bite down on the padded thumb of a glove (sheepskin works well
as padding) while they firmly hold the bottom jaw. The handler can then lift the body
with the other hand to where it can be pinned with flippers restrained under the
handlers arm
4. Once restrained animal’s can be wrapped firmly in a towel to help control the pectoral
flippers if necessary.
Fur seals:
• Typical y only one person wil be needed to capture, hold and manipulate young (0 – 12
months) fur seal pups during rehab.
• Two people are recommended for tube-feeding; one person is designated the role of
‘holder’ while the other is the ‘feeder’.
• Fur seal behaviour is reasonably predictable if handlers are familiar with recognising
behavioural cues.
Sea lions:
• Typically two people will be needed to capture, hold and manipulate young (0 – 12 months)
sea lion pups during rehab.
• Three people are recommended for tube-feeding; one person holds, another feeds and the
third is present to assist as required.
• A gag made of PVC piping may be useful to keep a sea lions mouth open while a feeding
tube can be passed into the stomach.
• Sea lions can be restrained on the ground for a period with two straddling people – the front
person sitting over the shoulders pinning the head firmly to the ground; the other person
straddling behind restraining the pectoral flippers with their knees.
• Behaviour is difficult to predict.
Table 1. Average weights of NZ fur seals and NZ sea lions:
FUR SEALS
SEA LIONS
Age
Weight
Reference
Age
Weight
Reference
(kg)
(kg)
Birth
3.0 – 5.5
Boren 2005
Birth
10
Chilvers et al 2007
2 months
6 - 11
Boren 2005
3 months
23 - 35
Inferred from:
Chilvers et al 2007 &
Childerhouse et al 2005
4 months
9 - 14
Boren 2005
1-2 years
45 - 80
Childerhouse et al 2010
77
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
References:
Boren, L.J. 2005. New Zealand fur seals in the Kaikoura region: colony dynamics, maternal
investment and health. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ
Childerhouse, S.J., Dawson, S.M., Fletcher, D.J., Slooten, E. & B.L. Chilvers. 2010. Growth and
reproduction of female New Zealand sea lions. Journal of Mammalogy 91(1): 165 – 176
Childerhouse, S., Gibbs, N., McAlister, G., McConkey, S., McConnel , H., McNal y, N. & Sutherland, D.
2005. Distribution, abundance and growth of New Zealand sea lion
Phocarctos hookeri pups on
Campbell Island. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 39: 889 – 898
Chilvers, B.L., Robertson, B.C., Wilkinson, I.S. & P.J. Duignan. 2007. Growth and survival of New
Zealand sea lions,
Phocarctos hookeri: birth to 3 months. Polar Biology 30: 459 - 469
78
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Individual identification of pinnipeds during OWR
Appendix 13
A DOC permit is required for all ‘tagging’ of marine mammals in New Zealand. Al methods described
below (temporary and semi-permanent) are considered tagging in this context.
Temporary identification methods (not recommended)
Researchers have used the following temporary marking methods successfully to track individual
pinnipeds over days/weeks.
• Bleaching patches of pelage
• Spray painting patches of pelage
• Clipping areas of pelage
However, al these techniques rely on a potential disturbance to the pelage integrity, which is
considered counter-productive to the aims of oiled wildlife response. Hence we recommend that
these techniques be avoided and that the flipper tag method outlined below be utilised instead.
Flipper tags (recommended):
Both New Zealand sea lion and New Zealand fur seal pups have been subject to ongoing tagging
studies, whereby plastic ‘livestock’ tags are punched through the trailing edge of the proximal fore-
flipper. This technique is widely accepted and has been approved through various ethics committees
in the past for both species. Personnel undertaking tag application should be trained by someone
who is an experienced tagger, regarding the details of tag placement and application technique. For
both species, pups should be tagged in both flippers. For a general description of tag application
and placement for different species see:
• Erickson, A. W., M. N. Bester and R. M. Laws. 1993. Marking techniques. Pages 89–118
in R. M.
Laws, ed. Antarctic seals: Research methods and techniques. University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
(available from: Massey University Library. Turitea Books (Level 2) - 599.745 Ant)
Fur seals: Recommended tags for NZ fur seal use are numbered Allflex® (NZ) sheep ear tags (Dowell
et al. 2008). Tag colour and number system should be discussed with Dr. Laura Boren to ensure
consistency with any DOC tagging studies. Tag placement is in the trailing edge of the proximal
fore-flipper, and should be overseen by someone familiar with tagging this species. Flipper tags
are highly recommended for fur seal pups. For al other age-classes their application should be
assessed on a case by case basis. Application of flipper tags to sub-adults and adults may be best
achieved under general anaesthetic concurrent with the wash process.
Sea lions: Recommended tags for NZ sea lions are uniquely numbered ‘coffin’ shaped ‘Dalton DAL
008 Jumbotags’ (Dalton Supplies Ltd., Henley-on-Thames, United Kingdom: Chilvers and Mackenzie
2010). Tag colour and number system should be discussed with Dr. Louise Chilvers to ensure
consistency with any DOC tagging studies. Tag placement is in the trailing edge of the proximal
fore-flipper, and should be overseen by someone familiar with tagging this species. Flipper tags
are highly recommended for sea lion pups. For al other age-classes their application should be
assessed on a case by case basis. Application of flipper tags to animals older then pups may be
best achieved under general anaesthetic concurrent with the wash process.
True seals: Recommended tags for all true seal species are uniquely numbered ‘Dalton DAL 008
Jumbotags’ (Dalton Supplies Ltd., Henley-on-Thames, United Kingdom: Pistorius et al. 2000). Tag
79
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
placement is in inter-digit webbing of the hind flipper, and should be overseen by someone
familiar with tagging this species. Al age classes are good candidates for hind flipper tagging.
Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) Tags (recommended):
PIT tags are tiny identification chips which are injected subcutaneously for permanent identification.
A ‘reader’ is needed to read the unique code that each chip has. The preferred supplier is Trovan,
Ltd., Douglas, United Kingdom. PIT tags are highly recommended for all seal species and all age
classes. Note that PIT tags are not detectable visually, but require a microchip reader for detection.
Recognition of natural markings (recommended):
A high proportion of adult sea lions and fur seals sustain wear and tear injuries which render the
individual recognisable from its peers. In circumstances where only a few individual adults are
admitted to care for oiling, it may be possible to rely on such markings to distinguish individuals
without applying alternative tags or marks. Features such as those listed below are useful for
individual recognition:
• Damage to the trailing edge of the fore flippers (including tag loss scars)
• Damage to the toes and webbing on the hind flippers
• Body scars
• Tooth damage
• Body size etc
Note – the NZ Sea lion trust holds a catalogue of over 100 sea lions in Otago that are identifiable
by such features (McConkey 1999). Animals accumulate natural markings of this nature over
time; hence natural markings may be especial y appropriate for adult animals which are not
ideal candidates for flipper tags.
Genetic Material:
Genetic finger printing techniques can also be employed to identify individuals. A smal amount
of skin can be snipped off the end of a hind digit and stored in 70% ethanol for future genetic
matching.
Reference:
Chilvers, B. L. & D. I. Mackenzie. 2010. Age- and sex-specific survival estimates incorporating tag loss
for New Zealand sea lions,
Phocarctos hookeri. Journal of Mammalogy 91(3): 758-767
Dowel , S.A., Boren, L.J., Negro, S.S., Mul er, C.G., Caudron, A.K. and N.J. Gemmell. 2008. Rearing two
New Zealand fur seal (
Arctocephalus forsteri) pups to weaning. Australian Journal of Zoology 56: 33-
39
Mcconkey, S. 1999. Photographic identification of the New Zealand sea lion: a new technique.
New
Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research,
33(1): 63-66
Pistorius, P.A., Bester, M.N., Kirkman, S.P. and P.L. Boveng. 2000. Evaluation of age- and sex-
dependent rates of tag loss in southern elephant seals.
Journal of Wildlife Management,
64(2): 373-
380
80
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Intake Examination, Triage and Veterinary Stabilisation of oiled pinnipeds Appendix 14
Veterinary examination:
On intake a full veterinary examination should be performed if practicable using the template
provided in Appendix 15.
Triage:
Two levels of triage need to be considered at this time:
• Triage based on presenting medical needs, whereby treatment of those individuals with the
greatest chance of survival is prioritised. The attending veterinarian will oversee this triage.
• Triage by conservation status needs also to be considered.
Triage by conservation:
The following priority ranking should be observed for a spil affecting numerous pinniped species:
1. New Zealand sea lions
2. Southern elephant seals
3. Leopard seals
4. New Zealand fur seals
Within an individual species group prioritisation should occur as follows:
a) Pups (especially females)
b) Breeding females
c) Juvenile females
d) Adult males
e) Juvenile males
Blood sampling:
A blood sample should be taken to facilitate basic diagnostics (PCV, TP). The caudal gluteal vein is
the most convenient blood col ection site for both fur seals and sea lions. Other options are the
inter-digital vein in the hind flipper and the jugular vein.
Hydration therapy:
Most oiled pinnipeds wil present in a state of dehydration. Blood values should be determined
where possible to guide fluid therapy. In lieu of blood results - dehydration should be presumed at 5
- 10%. Hydration therapy can be administered via the following routes:
• Oral
• Subcutaneous
• Intravenous
• Intraosseous
• intraperitoneal
81
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Data Collection:
The absolute minimum of data to be col ected during intake (following Gulland et al 2001) is:
• Sex
• Age-class
• Standard length
• Body condition score
However, attempts should be made to complete as many fields of the examination template as
possible, whilst remaining realistic about the constraints of handling conscious wild pinnipeds.
Body temperature correction:
Attention should be given to each individual’s thermoregulatory state and holding pen temperature
should be modified to normalise body temperature if necessary. Individual heating pads or hot
water bottles can be provided for animals that require warming. Sprinklers can be used to cool
animals as can ice packs if necessary. Shade should be available at all times to captive pinnipeds.
Underlying injuries and disease:
Individuals with serious injury or disease symptoms at intake may be immediate candidates for
euthanasia depending on the scale of the event and the resources available. The attending
veterinarian will be responsible for decisions relating to the treatment of all underlying injury or
illness during OWR.
Common medical conditions of oiled pininpeds:
For a summary of the following important medical conditions common to oiled pinnipeds see OWCN
2004:
• Stress
• Hypoglycaemia
• Shock
• Vomiting
• CNS Disorders
• Respiratory distress
References:
Gulland, F.M.D., Haulena, M. and L.A. Dierauf. 2001. Seals and sea lions.
In L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D.
Gulland (eds): CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second Edition, CRC Press LLC, Boca
Raton, Florida. Chapter 41.
Oiled Wildlife Care Network. 2004. Protocols for the care of oil affected mammals. M. Haulena, S.
Johnson, J. Mazet, P.Yochem & M. Ziccardi eds. Davis, CA: University of California, Wildlife Health
Center.
82
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Pinniped Admission and Summary Record
Appendix 15
Incident Name:
Admission #:
Admission date:
Admission time:
Species:
Pup /Juv. / Adult
Male / Female / ?
Tag number:
Chip number:
History - from collection tag:
Capture date:
Capture time:
Capture method:
Capture location:
Col ected by (name):
Status at time of collection (circle one):
Alive
Dead
Degree of oiling at time of collection (%):
Date & time of departure to treatment facility:
Pre-transport treatment Details:
Treatment given at staging site: YES / NO
Mouth/Nose Cleared
YES / NO
Warmed
YES / NO
Excess oil removed
YES / NO
Eyes Irrigated
YES / NO
Oral Hydration YES / NO
Volume:
Fluid:
Other comments:
Admission Physical Examination:
Pulse:
Fur:
Weight:
Mouth:
Body condition:
Nose:
Digestive tract:
Eyes:
Lymph nodes:
Ears:
Dehydration:
%
Skin:
Temperature:
°C
Body:
PCV:
Fore-flippers:
Buffy Coat:
Hind-flippers:
Total Protein:
Posture:
Blood Glucose:
Strength:
Faecal (Direct):
Demeanour
Faecal (Float):
Respiration
Faecal – Blood:
Yes / No
Comments:
Triage Ranking:
Low priority
Medium priority
High priority
Type of Oil:
Degree of Oiling:
25%
50%
75%
100%
83
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Area Oiled:
NB: Guard hairs only = ‘Sheen’ or ‘Light’ : Guard hairs to under-fur = ‘Medium’
: Guard hairs to skin = ‘Heavy’
Head:
Sheen
Light
Medium
Heavy
Chest:
Sheen
Light
Medium
Heavy
Fore-Flippers Sheen
Light
Medium
Heavy
Back:
Sheen
Light
Medium
Heavy
Belly:
Sheen
Light
Medium
Heavy
Hind-flippers: Sheen
Light
Medium
Heavy
Initial rehydration therapy:
Fluid type:
Volume:
Medical Treatment Summary:
Samples collected:
Euthanased -
Date:
Method:
Reason:
Date washed
Product used
Wash duration
Patient condition
1.
2.
3.
Pre-release Physical Examination:
Pulse:
Fur:
Weight:
Mouth:
Body condition:
Nose:
Digestive tract:
Eyes:
Lymph nodes:
Ears:
Dehydration:
%
Skin:
Temperature:
°C
Body:
PCV:
Fore-flippers:
Buffy Coat:
Hind-flippers:
Total Protein:
Posture:
Blood Glucose:
Strength:
Faecal (Direct):
Demeanour
Faecal (Float):
Respiration
Faecal – Blood:
Yes / No
Comments:
Release Location:
Date Released:
Time Released
84
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Pinniped Anaesthesia during OWR:
Appendix 16
Small to medium sized New Zealand sea lions and New Zealand fur seals
Isoflurane inhalation is the safest trialled technique for anaesthesia in small to medium sized New
Zealand sea lions and New Zealand fur seals (Gales and Mattlin 1998). A portable anaesthesia
machine has been developed to facilitate this technique. The Department of Conservation has one
of these machines that may be available for use during OWR; contact Dr. Louise Chilvers Sea lion
Biologist for further information.
This technique requires animals to be physically restrained before being masked for delivery of the
anaesthetic agent. This physical restraint aspect means that large adults may need to be sedated
(e.g. intramuscular midazolam) via remotely administered intramuscular injection (blowpipe or dart
gun) before they can be masked, this can lead to a prolonged recovery times and complications
associated with the use of injectable agents during anaesthesia maintenance (Gales & Mattlin 1998).
Dosage rates for anaesthesia by isoflurane inhalation following Gales & Mattlin 1998 are provided
below:
Species
Dosage
NZ fur seal
1.2 – 4.0%
NZ sea lion
0.8 – 4.0%
The recommended dose rate of midazolam for sedation in Otariids is 0.1 – 0.2 mg/kg for (McBain
2001).
Haulena & Heath 2001, strongly recommend intubation for al pinniped anaesthesias and comment
that great care should be taken in positioning the head and neck to ensure tracheal stricture. It is
prudent to note however that many NZ sea lions have been anesthetised without intubation in
ongoing studies by the Department of Conservation on the Auckland Islands.
Adult male sea lions:
Anaesthesia of adult male sea lions has been performed on only a limited number of males to date.
The technique for this age-class differs in that Zoletil 100® is initially administered remotely at a
dosage of 1.7mg/kg before the animal (once unconscious) is masked and maintained via a portable
anaesthesia machine (Geschke & Chilvers 2009).
The main concern for seals when under anaesthesia is the risk of vomiting.
Anaesthetised individuals lack a gag reflex, meaning that any material that is regurgitated is easily
aspirated and may obstruct the airway and/or cause aspirate pneumonia.
85
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
The following guidelines are used by the Department of Conservation Sea Lion Research Team
during sea lion anaesthesia and may help to mitigate complications (L. Chilvers pers. comm.)
1. Ensure animal has been ashore (i.e. not foraging and has an empty stomach) for at least 3
hours prior to anaesthesia (This maybe assumed if need be i.e. dry fur, relaxed asleep on
shore, nursing pup, long way from shore etc) .
2. Whilst anaesthetised, position animal with head slightly higher than the body to reduce risk
of stomach content leakage.
3. For the duration of the anaesthesia process have one person with the sole responsibility of
observing the animals breathing. This person should also hold a hand on the animals throat
to feel for movement or vomiting.
4. If vomiting does occur - reverse anaesthesia immediately by administering pure oxygen.
Clear mouth and take immediate action to ensure the animal’s body is higher than its head.
This can be achieved either by lifting the body or by excavating a depression in the ground
under the head and shoulder area.
5. If severe i.e. liquid and food actually came out of mouth - consider giving animal an
injectable long lasting antibiotic to help prevent aspirate pneumonia (Antibiotics should be
keep on hand in al cases)
The following information sheet (prepared by Larry Vogelnest, Taronga Zoo, Sydney) on leopard seal
resuscitation during anaesthesia may be useful for other pinniped species during anaesthesia
emergencies.
References:
Chilvers, L. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.
Gales, N. J. 1989. Chemical restraint and anaesthesia of pinnipeds: A review. Marine Mammal
Science 5:228-257.
Gales, N. J., and R. H. Mattlin. 1998. Fast, safe, field-portable gas anaesthesia for otariids. Marine
Mammal Science 14(2):355-361.
Geschke, K. & B.L. Chlivers. 2009. Managing big boys: a case study on remote anaesthesia and
satellite tracking of adult male New Zealand sea lions (
Phocarctos hookeri).
Wildlife Research,
36(8):
666-674
Haulena, M. and R.B. Heath. 2001. Marine mammal anaesthesia.
In: CRC Handbook of Marine
Mammal Medicine, Second Edition, L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland (eds.), CRC Press LLC, Boca
Raton, Florida. Chapter 29
McBain, J.F. 2001. Cetacean medicine.
In: CRC Handbook of Marine Mammal Medicine, Second
Edition, L.A. Dierauf and F.M.D. Gulland (eds.), CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida. Chapter 40
86
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Leopard seal resuscitation procedure
Prepared by Larry Vogelnest, Senior Veterinarian, Taronga Zoo
January 2009
Recognising cardiopulmonary difficulties
• Increased respiration rate and effort (up to 14 bpm) – indicates possible airway obstruction
and hypoventilation
• Apnoea for 30 seconds or longer
• Loss of visible or audible heart beat
• Change in mucous membrane colour from pink to any other colour
• Capillary refill time > 3 seconds
Assessment of CPA should be extremely rapid – if in doubt start CPR
Basic life support
Aim: to supply the heart and brain with oxygenated blood – every intervention should be aimed at
improving myocardial oxygenation, cerebral oxygenation or both
• Provision of oxygen and ventilation
o
Check for airway obstruction and rectify – change position of animal, stimulate by
rolling, punch chest, open mouth. If no improvement intubate and ventilate using
30L/min demand valve or re-breathing bag. If still breathing and moving air but having
difficulty give O2 via face mask while trying to improve respiration. Give 2-4 bpm
• Provision of circulation
o
External chest compressions – in large animals the thoracic pump mechanism rather
than direct cardiac compression is used. The thoracic pump mechanism relies on
compression of the chest wall causing significant increase in intra-thoracic pressure,
forcing blood out of the chest away from the heart, then when the chest wall is
allowed to relax, blood will flow into the chest toward the heart again. The
arrangement of valves in the heart and great vessels ensure a one way flow of blood.
For this mechanism to be effective it is important to allow full relaxation between
compressions to allow cardiac filling. Compressions should be at a rate of 80-100/min
and should continue for at least 3 min before taking a break to check for heart beat
and spontaneous respiration. Ventilation must continue during the compressions. To
prevent fatigue of the person doing the compressions the ventilator and compressor
should swap every 3 min.
• Check ET CO2 – if CO2 is present this will indicate effective ventilation. No CO2 means
inadequate perfusion. A sudden increase in CO2 indicates return of spontaneous circulation
• Check mucous membrane colour as an indicator of effective ventilation and perfusion
• Check heart beat
• Check pupil size – fixed and dilated is not a good sign
Drug therapy
Only a small number of drugs are actually effective during CPR and some may do harm
• Adrenaline – 0.1ml/kg of 1:10 000 (= 0.01mg/kg) – intracardiac, IV (extradural, jugular,
lingual veins), IM in the tongue or endotracheally (if this route is used double the dose and
flush with sterile water or saline followed by several large breaths)
• Atropine – if bradyarrhythmia is present give 0.04mg/kg IV, IM in the tongue or endotracheally
(if this route is used double the dose and flush with sterile water or saline followed by several
large breaths)
87
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Wash room facility requirements:
Appendix 17
Many features that are considered important for the design of oiled wildlife response facilities for
the treatment of birds are relevant also to oiled marine mammals; hence Appendix 10 of the avian
SOP should be consulted in addition to the marine mammal specific features listed below.
NOTE:
For marine mammals it is anticipated that the wash station and the rinse station will be one and the
same for all individuals except for pups, which are possibly small enough to transfer to separate
wash stations should this be deemed advantageous.
Water Supply
Temperature: Provide washing and rinsing water temperatures which can be easily
control ed between 10 and 40°C
Pressure: Provide water pressure at 200 - 275 kPa in wash/rinse area, while maintaining
sufficient water pressure in other areas as necessary.
Quantity: Provide supply line(s) large enough to cater for all areas requiring water
simultaneously. The quantity should be sufficient to provide a continuous flow of 15
L/minute to all indoor outlets and an additional supply for pools if necessary.
Quality: Maintain a water softness of 30-50 mg calcium carbonate per litre for wash/rinse
stations and pools.
Wash/rinse stations require an unlimited supply of temperature control ed softened water
over 60 – 90 minutes.
Wash/rinse work station
A metal bench at 1050 mm height, with a worktop approximately 1000 mm long by 500 mm
wide is ideal for personnel comfort during the wash process. A drain in the bench centre
may also be beneficial.
The use of tubs for the wash process may or may not be appropriate depending on the size
of the animal:
If tubs are to be used extreme care must be taken to keep the animals mouth and
nostrils above water at all times.
For pups/juveniles shal ow tubs may be useful to retain the wash solution around the
animal during the wash process.
For large animals it may be difficult to find a tub that is long enough, in these
circumstances a continuous supply of wash solution in buckets may be a better option,
with the animal lying directly on the work bench.
If no tub is used during the wash process, due attention must be given to the safe
drainage of waste water around the work station in order to ensure responder safety.
Strong task lighting will be required.
88
Oiled Marine Mammal Protocols
Appendices
Key International Contacts:
Appendix 18
Name, Title
Organisation
Contacts
Pam Yochem, Senior Research
Hubbs SeaWorld Research
Phone: 619 226 3870
Scientist (experienced in al
Institute, San Diego, California
Fax: 619 226 3944
facets of MM OWR)
Email: [email address]
Brent Stewart, Senior Research
Hubbs SeaWorld Research
Phone: 619 226 3875
Scientist (vast experience in post
Institute, San Diego, California
Fax: 619 226 3944
release monitoring)
Email:[email address]
Frances Gul and, Director
The Marine Mammal Centre
Phone: 415 289 7325
(experienced in al facets of MM
Sausalito, California
Fax: 415 289 7333
OWR)
Email: Gul [email address]
Bil van Bonn, Marine Mammal
The Marine Mammal Centre,
Phone: 415 289 7325
Veterinarian
Sausalito, California
Fax: 415 754 4031
Email: [email address]
Deb Wickham, Operations
The Marine Mammal Centre,
Phone: 415 289 7331
Manager (experienced in al
Sausalito, California
Fax: 415 754 4031
facets of MM OWR)
Email: [email address]
Dave Jessup, Senior Wildlife
Marine Wildlife Veterinary Care Phone: 831 469 1726
Veterinarian (experienced in al
& Research Centre,
Fax: 831 469 1723
facets of MM OWR)
Department of Fish & Game,
Email: [email address]
Santa Cruz, California
Mark Bressler, Senior Animal
SeaWorld, San Diego,
Phone: 619 226 3893
Care Specialist (experienced in al California
Fax: 619 226 3951
facets of MM OWR)
Email: [email address]
Hendrik Nol ens, Marine
SeaWorld, San Diego, California Email: Nol [email address]
Mammal Veterinarian
& University of Florida
Email: Hendrik.Nol [email address]
Martin Haulena, Marine Mammal Vancouver Aquarium
Phone: 604-659-3468
Veterinarian (experienced in
Email: [email address]
marine mammal rehabilitation)
Larry Vogelnest, Senior
Taronga Zoo
Email: [email address]
Veterinarian (experienced with
Bradleys Head Road
T 61 2 9978 4618
leopard seal handling and al
Mosman, NSW 2088
F 61 2 9978 4516
facets of MM OWR)
M 0419 413311
Nick Gales, Director of AMMC,
Australian Marine Mammal
Phone: 03 6232 3209
Marine Mammal biologist
Centre, Australian Antarctic
Fax: 03 6232 3288
(experienced in al facets of MM
Division, Kingston, Tasmania
Email: [email address]
OWR, NZ sea lions, elephant seal
experience)
Simon Childerhouse, Marine
Australian Marine Mammal
Phone: +61-439-317-605
Mammal Scientist (NZ sea lions,
Centre, Australian Antarctic
Fax: 03 6232 3288
NZ humpback whales)
Division, Kingston, Tasmania
Email: [email address]
Padraig Duignan, Marine
Melbourne University, Australia Phone: 61 3973 12016
Mammal Pathologist (sea lion
Mobile: 61 406596776
rehab experience)
Email: [email address]
NB.
MM OWR = marine mammal oiled wildlife response
89
Document Outline
